Throughout the Fox River valley, the Cambrian–Ordovician bedrock aquifer is used extensively for residential and municipal water supply. A regional aquitard may control groundwater recharge to this aquifer. The aquitard is composed of silt and clay deposited in glacial Lake Oshkosh, which formed in front of the receding Green Bay Lobe of the Laurentide Ice Sheet approximately 13,000 to 19,000 years ago.
Some of this lake sediment was subsequently eroded and deposited on upland areas by readvances of the ice. As a result, much of the Fox River valley is covered with varying thicknesses of fine-grained sediment. Much like the Maquoketa Formation in southeast Wisconsin, this fine-grained sediment may act as an aquitard, limiting infiltration to the bedrock aquifer.

The ability of the fine-grained sediment to transmit water was determined using consolidometers in the laboratory and slug tests in the field. Intact samples for consolidation testing were collected from several rotosonic boreholes drilled in the
region. Hydraulic conductivity of these samples ranged from 1 x 10-8 ms-1 to 1 x 10-11 ms-1, decreasing with applied load. These results show that hydraulic conductivity could vary several orders of magnitude from the surface to the base of
the sequence.

Multilevel well systems, installed in two of the rotosonic boreholes, support this conclusion. Slug tests conducted in three of the well ports at one location revealed that hydraulic conductivity decreases with depth from 2.7 x 10-8 ms-1 at 20 ft to 3.0 x 10-11 ms-1 at 160 ft. These findings indicate that the hydraulic conductivity of these sediments decreases in relation to depth below land surface as a result of stress caused by overlying sediment.

The laser diffraction (LD) is one of the most widely applied grain size measurement methods. The main advantages of LD are: (1) relatively short time of single measurement, (2) low cost of analysis, (3) simplicity of sample preparation, (4) great amount of acquired numerical data. One of the less frequently obtained parameters, often provided only by application of dedicated external hardware, is so-called “elongation parameter”, “grain shape factor” or “grain shape parameter”.
Due to the inability of direct export of numerical grain shape data from the Malvern Hydro Sight camera, authors proposed own method of digitalization and recalculation
of grain shape graphs produced by the Malvern software.
Acquired sedimentological and geochemical data were analysed using statistical methods, such as correlation/regression analysis and principal components analysis (PCA).
Proposed method of data extraction and analysis of grain shape parameters may be especially useful tool during investigation of Quaternary sediments and reconstruction of environmental changes.

In the landscapes with immobile or weakly movable  water the upward rocks penetrations have significant mean. This phenomenon includes tree stages. First - the solution of the carbonate underlies rocks. Second - the travel of the dissolved rocks as ions and cations. Third - the rock segmentation in the near surface zопе due to the season temperature exchange. In this way the mass of the underlying rocks are penetrating in the upper layers. The main features of this phenomenon is reduction of the rocks volume that is reason of the earth surface depression beginning.
В ландшафтах, які характеризуються незначною швидкістю руху підземних та поверхневих вод, - переміщення гірських порід може відбуватися за ра¬хунок руху іонів та катіонів Під час сезонних змін температур розчинені речовини з закономірною ци¬клічністю будуть осідати в приповерхневій зоні, що призводить до взаємопроникнення мас гірських порід, зменшення їх загального об'єму та форму¬вання від'ємних форм рельєфу.

Little Ice Age (LIA) fluctuations of Glaciar Río Manso, north Patagonian Andes, Argentina are studied using information from previous work and dendrogeomorphological analyses of living and subfossil wood. The most extensive LIA expansion occurred between the late 1700s and the 1830–1840s. Except for a massive older frontal moraine system apparently predating ca. 2240 14C yr BP and a small section of a south lateral moraine ridge that is at least 300 yr old, the early nineteenth century advance overrode surficial evidence of any earlier LIA glacier events. Over the past 150 yr the gently sloping, heavily debris-covered lower glacier tongue has thinned significantly, but several short periods of readvance or stasis have been identified and tree-ring dated to the mid-1870s, 1890s, 1900s, 1920s, 1950s, and the mid-1970s. Ice mass loss has increased in recent years due to calving into a rapidly growing proglacial lake. The neighboring debris-free and land-based Glaciar Frías has also retreated markedly in recent years but shows substantial differences in the timing of the peak LIA advance (early 1600s). This indicates that site-specific factors can have a significant impact on the resulting glacier records and should thus be considered carefully in the development and assessment of regional glacier chronologies.

We have compiled 223 sedimentary charcoal records from Australasia in order to examine the temporal and spatial variability of fire regimes during the Late Quaternary. While some of these records cover more than a full glacial cycle, here we focus on the last 70,000 years when the number of individual records in the compilation allows more robust conclusions. On orbital time scales, fire in Australasia predominantly reflects climate, with colder periods characterized by less and warmer intervals by more biomass burning. The composite record for the region also shows considerable millennial-scale variability during the last glacial interval (73.5e14.7 ka). Within the limits of the dating uncertainties of individual records, the variability shown by the composite charcoal record is more similar to the form, number and timing of DansgaardeOeschger cycles as observed in Greenland ice cores than to the variability expressed in the Antarctic ice-core record. The composite charcoal record suggests increased biomass burning in the Australasian region during Greenland Interstadials and reduced burning during Greenland Stadials. Millennial-scale variability is characteristic of the composite record of the subtropical high pressure belt during the past 21 ka, but the tropics show a somewhat simpler pattern of variability with major peaks in biomass burning around 15 ka and 8 ka. There is no distinct change in fire regime corresponding to the arrival of humans in Australia at 50 AE 10 ka and no correlation between archaeological evidence of increased human activity during the past 40 ka and the history of biomass burning. However, changes in biomass burning in the last 200 years may have been exacerbated or influenced by humans.

The geomorphological features of a cirque partially occupied by receding ice bodies are presented as evidences of different glacial stages in the Fuegian Andes summits since the Last Glaciation (IOS 2). A glacierization scheme involving: (i) regional glacier accumulation basin; (ii) glacier individualization from a main regional; (ii) a stillstand during the general retreat and (iii) two advancing stages are suggested. Geomorphic and sedimentary units, named Martial I, II, III and IV, have been distinguished as a consequence of the glacial scheme. Unfortunately, the lack of datable materials has impeded establishment of an absolute chronology. Recognized glacier advances in the region are discussed. The palaeoclimatic framework for the surroundings, based on previous studies, is presented.

Rimming the outer shelf of Grand Cayman is a submerged, 87-km long shelf-edge reef that rises to within 12 m of mean sea level. It consists of an array of coral-armoured buttresses aligned perpendicular to shore and separated by steep-sided sediment-floored canyons. Individual buttresses have a diverse coral-dominated biota and consist of 3 architectural elements: a shield-like front wall colonized by platy corals, a dome-shaped crown colonized by head corals, and a shoreward-projecting spur covered by varying amounts of branching coral. Buttresses are commonly fronted by coral pinnacles that, in some areas, have amalgamated with buttress walls to produce pinnacle-and-arch structures.
As margin orientation changes, shelf-edge-reef architecture shows systematic variations that are consistent with changes in fetch and height of hurricane waves. Along margins exposed to fully-developed storm waves, shelf-edge-reef buttresses are deep, have large amplitudes, and are dominated by robust head corals. These characteristics are consistent with hurricane-induced pruning of branching corals and the flushing of significant quantities of sand from buttress canyons by return flows. Along margins impacted by fetch-limited storm waves, reef buttresses are shallower, have intermediate-amplitudes, and have a significantly higher proportion of branching corals. These characteristics are consistent with less coral pruning and sand flushing by weaker hurricane waves. Along margins fully protected from storm waves, the buttresses-canyon architecture of the shelf-edge reef breaks down producing a series of shallow, undulating, branching-coral-dominated ridges that merge laterally into an unbroken belt of coral. These characteristics correspond with negligible amounts of pruning and flushing during hurricanes.
In addition to differences between margins, local intra-marginal changes in shelf-edge reef architecture are consistent with changes in the angle of hurricane-wave approach. Open sections of the shelf-edge reef, which face directly into storm waves, are pruned of branching corals and the fragments swept back onto the shelf producing extensive spurs. By contrast, on more sheltered, obliquely-oriented sections, storm-waves sweep debris along and off shelf producing little or no spur development. Instead, the debris shed seawards accumulates in front of the buttress walls and initiates the development of coral pinnacles.
Over time, repeated buttress pruning and canyon flushing during hurricanes not only controls reef architecture but may also influence accretion patterns. Vertical accretion is limited by the effective depth of storm-wave fragmentation. Once this hurricane-accretion threshold is reached the reef moves into a shedding phase and accretes laterally via pinnacle growth, amalgamation, and infilling. Consequently, the reef steps out over its own debris in a kind of balancing act between lateral growth and slope failure—a pattern widely recognized in ancient reefs.

The southern Andes comprise the southernmost portion of the Andean Cordillera, beginning at the edge of the Puna Altiplano (lat.27°S) and ending at Isla de los Estados (lat.55°S). The late Cainozoic glacial record of these mountains spans the interval from the Late Miocene to the present and is one of the most complete to be found anywhere in the world. This has arisen for several reasons: (i) the conterminous mountain ice cap extended to the piedmont zone on both flanks of the range, where the sedimentary and morphological record has been well preserved; (ii) periodic volcanism, mainly from monogenetic fissure eruptions of basalt east of the range and from central tephra-producing cones along the mountain crest, has provided opportunity for the preservation and radiometric dating of interbedded glacial deposits; (iii) a tectonically-induced interval of stream incision in the Mid Pleistocene and simultaneous uplift has preserved glacial sediments on interfluves; (iv) in the Chilean lakes region west of the mountains, Late Quaternary glaciers terminated in a well-vegetated landscape, thus creating scope for radiocarbon dating of interbedded and incorporated organic materials; consequently, the last glaciation in the Llanquihue area of Chile is one of the best dated sequences in South America; thus the 'Llanquihue' Glaciation is proposed as the South American equivalent of the 'Wisconsin' and 'Weichsel' glaciations of North America and north west Europe respectively.

Strontium isotope data indicate that sediments of the Norwest Bend Formation were deposited within a large estuarine system during the Latest Miocene to Early Pliocene (probably N 5 Ma). The Norwest Bend Formation is divisible into two members; a lower sand-dominated member and an upper oyster coquina member. These two units are separated by an irregular, erosion surface that has no correlative within the adjacent Loxton-Parilla Sands. Tectonism in the western Murray Basin adjacent to the Adelaide Foldbelt has exerted a considerable control over the formation of these estuarine sediments. The Lower Norwest Bend Formation occupies a paleodrainage system that was restricted to a region west of the Hamley Fault and was presumably incised following uplift of this western block. Flooding of this paleodrainage system produced the Lower Norwest Bend estuarine system. Later tectonism on the Hamley Fault resulted in the formation of the erosion surface within the Norwest Bend Formation. We suggest that the Norwest Bend estuarine system owes its existence to marginal tectonism associated with the young uplift of the Mt. Lofty-Flinders Ranges. The paleodrainage system incised prior to deposition of the Norwest Bend Formation differs markedly in geometry from the present Murray River-gorge system. This suggests that the modern Murray River system developed after deposition of the Late Miocene-Pliocene Norwest Bend Formation.

The glacial and periglacial record of southern Africa during the Quaternary is limited to the highest-altitude areas of the Drakensberg and Cape Fold Belt, where late Pleistocene temperature depression in addition to uncertain changes in precipitation regime were sufficient in combination to develop small cirque glaciers and/or a range of periglacial features. This chapter reflects on past debates for and against Quaternary glaciations, and identifies research gaps in these debates. Geomorphological and sedimentary evidence for glacial and periglacial landforms is summarised in this chapter, and the climatic and environmental contexts in which they developed, where known, are explained. There remain significant gaps in our understanding of cold Quaternary events in high mountain areas of southern Africa, mainly due to an absence of reliable palaeoclimatic indicators, the sometimes inconclusive climatic signatures offered by periglacial landforms, and poor dating control. The Drakensberg and Cape Fold Belt still experience marginal periglacial climate conditions today, but are currently undergoing change due to both regional climate change and human-induced landscape alterations, thus that future periglacial activity is likely to become further constrained in location.

While the Ensenadan Stage/Age (ca. 2.1 to 0.5 Ma) was characterized by certain mammal associations in the Pampean plains, the Andean ranges of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, their piedmont areas and, in some cases, the adjacent lowlands were undergoing a well-defined alternating sequence of glacial and interglacial stages driven by the regional climate of Southernmost South America and Antarctica. This paper reviews the available geographical, geological and chronological evidence of glaciation during the Ensenadan stage/age, with perhaps more than 15 distinct glacial events, including the Great Patagonian Glaciation (GPG) and other cold episodes that took place before and after it. Finally, a tentative correlation of Patagonian glacial episodes and the Pampean biostratigraphic stages, based on radiometric dating and paleomagnetic studies, is herein presented.

Following the publication of a geological paper by Ixer and Bevins (2011) that provenanced certain rhyolite fragments in the Stonehenge "debitage" to a rocky crag at Craig Rhosyfelin in North Pembrokeshire, Parker Pearson and his archaeological colleagues announced that "the Pompeii of prehistoric stone quarries"  had been found at the site.  Over the course of five digging seasons they claim to have confirmed the initial hypothesis, although nothing has been published.  There has been no geomorphology involvement in the dig or in the interpretation of field findings, and this has caused concern.  Because the site is adjacent to a public footpath, and because parts of the excavation have been left open from season to season, it has been possible to conduct independent studies of the landforms and sediments. This paper summarises the new findings.  The dig site is located in a small meltwater channel on the NW flank of a rocky ridge.  There are abundant traces of glacial and fluvioglacial action, including heavy abrasion of exposed surfaces.  The valley wall coincides with a rock face which is interpreted as a natural feature controlled by multiple closely-spaced fracture planes which dip steeply and which are themselves controlled by foliations within the Ordovician rhyolite.  There is a long history of rockfalls from the crags above the rock face, and rockfall debris now partly obscures it.  Fragile rocky outcrops are still affected by biological and other processes which cause intermittent slope collapses.  The rock face is deemed not to be a quarrying face, since there is no trace of human intervention in its evolution.  The sequence of deposits at the site is described alongside a set of stratigraphic columns with a photographic record.  The deposits include a coarse diamicton which is interpreted as a Devensian till, and there are related fluvioglacial deposits near the tip of the rocky spur.  Rockfall deposits are intercalated with these materials, and stratified slope deposits are prominent.  These are assumed to be of Holocene age, and they grade into a mixed colluvial deposit towards the valley floor where the surface gradient is reduced. Within the deposit sequence there is a marked iron-stained layer which coincides in places with the top of the till layer; but it crosses stratigraphic boundaries and is interpreted as a pedological feature.  The full sequence is tied into the North Pembrokeshire glacial and post-glacial stratigraphy, and there are no anomalies. The final part of the paper examines a number of features claimed by the archaeologists to be "engineering features" or "installations".    Sixteen features are analysed, including a "proto-orthostat", an "export trackway", a "vertical stone fulcrum", "stone rails", and a "monolith extraction point." Without exception these features are found to be entirely natural; and indeed no trace has ever been found at Rhosyfelin of any tools such as hammer-stones, stone axes, or antler picks, or of any layers of quarry working debris or flakes.  On the other hand there are abundant traces of intermittent human occupation of this site over many thousands of years, which the authors interpret as signs of a hunting and gathering economy in which monolith quarrying played no part.  In conclusion it is suggested that the archaeologists at Rhosyfelin have described what they wanted to see, rather than what was there, and that they have been so enthusiastic about the quarrying "find" that they have unconsciously fashioned some of their own cited evidence.  It is proposed that in future work in putative "Neolithic quarrying" sites, archaeologists should ensure that there is an input from related disciplines including pedology and geomorphology.

The Suisun Marsh study area encompasses roughly 67,000 acres. About 10% of this area has been inventoried at various intensities for 46 proposed projects. Four prehistoric resources have been recorded within the designated study area—two occupation areas and two isolates. Eighteen historic-era resources include secondary refuse, ranches, farms, landings, a railway station and a church. Based on historic-era documents and maps, there is a potential for, at a minimum, 89 additional resources, including duck clubs; additional ranches, farms, landings, and railroad stations; settlements and towns; a cemetery; and a school. All resources, except isolates, should be presumed sensitive and either be avoided or tested/researched should ground-disturbing activities be planned within their known or purported boundaries.
The geoarchaeological sensitivity model focuses on the depositional history of late-Pleistocene to Holocene-age surface landforms within the Suisun Marsh study area to discern where the archaeological record is likely to be buried and cultural remains preserved. We first reconstruct significant landscape changes in the San Francisco Bay-Delta during the period of human occupation, detailing sea-level changes; deposition from hydraulic gold mining; reduction of vegetation cover from drought, livestock grazing, and erosion; artificial levees and reclaimed marsh lands; fluctuating salinity levels; changes back and forth from brackish tidal flat to freshwater marsh; and accumulation of peat and sediments. We then identify the age and extent of different landform segments over the past 15,000 years using digital soil surveys, refined through the compilation and analysis of regional radiocarbon data and archaeological site distribution by environmental variables.
Results of the Cumulative Model indicate that 95% of the study area has Moderate or lower sensitivity that requires little to no further management. Only 317 acres (<0.5%) are of Very High sensitivity and about 2,980 acres (~4.3%) are considered High sensitivity, areas which would need to be avoided or tested prior to any deep construction activities.

The stratigraphy of the Quaternary sedimentary deposits. A first compilation of the Quaternary lithostratigraphic units
of the province, defined by different authors and appearing in national and international scientific literature, is presented
here. The order followed is based on a description of geological formations that typify the main geomorphological environments,
organized according to a known or inferred age for each formation. This resulted in five lithostratigraphical
units representative of the Inter-mountain Valleys of the Pampean Ranges of Córdoba (Brochero, Las Rabonas, Mina
Clavero and Charbonier Formations), four informal sedimentary units in the named high pampas, twelve units recognized
in the Central Eastern Piedmont and of the Sierra de Comechingones (Alpa Corral, Estación Belgrano, Río Primero,
General Paz, Río La Granja, Pampeano, Chocancharava, La Invernada, Río Cuarto, Arroyo Las Lajas, Laguna Oscura
and Reducción Formations), eight representative units of the Western Flank of Sierra Norte, the Inter-mountain Basin
of the Salinas Grandes and Ambargasta and the Northeastern Piedmont (Río Cruz del Eje, Toro Muerto, Charbonier,
Chuña, La Batea, Las Ollas, Guanaco Muerto and Zanjas Hondas Formation), four units of the Fluvio-Aeolian Central
Plain (Carcarañá, Tezanos Pinto, Lucio V. López and San Guillermo Formations), four units of the Tectonic Depression
of Mar Chiquita Lake (Lagunilla del Plata, Tezanos Pinto, Lomita del Indio Formations, and Las Saladas Sands), three
units recognized in the Elevated Block of San Guillermo (Palo Negro, Tezanos Pinto and San Guillermo Formations),
and three representative units of the Southern Aeolian Sandy Plain (Teodelina and San Gregorio Formations, and Aeolian
Sands of the Little Ice Age). Data related to the analysis of the outcropping pedosedimentary sequences investigated by
several authors in the province are also integrated. A reconstruction of the paleoenvironmental evolution of the Upper
Quaternary based primarily on the stratigraphic record and geomorphological information supplements the analysis.
Keywords: Stratigraphy, Quaternary, Pleistocene, Holocene, Province of Córdoba.

A Historical geographical analysis of the Oudorperpolder  near Alkmaar, The Netherlands. The multi criteria analysis  can be used in the assesment of elements and structures in a historical context. An analysis of the Quarternary geology helps explain the site and situation of these objects.

The ephemeral lacustrine carbonates of the Bungunnia Limestone, deposited in palaeo megalake Bungunnia, preserve a detailed record of Pleistocene palaeoenvironmental and palaeoclimatic change in southeastern Australia. Five distinct lake shorelines (Lake Levels 0–4) are visible on digital elevation models, ranging in elevation from around 70 m to 30 m above sea level. The Bungunnia Limestone is preserved on the three lowest terraces ranging over 20 m in elevation (Lake Levels 2–4). On the two higher of these terraces Bungunnia Limestone contains ooids and stromatolites and is calcite- and aragonite-dominated whereas on the lower terrace level Bungunnia Limestone is dolomite-, gypsum- and magnesite-dominated and preserves tepee structures and mud-cracks. Thus, lacustrine conditions are interpreted to have become increasingly saline and evaporitic over time reflecting an overall trend to more arid climatic regimes. The highest lake level (Level 0 at around 70 m above sea level) appears to relate to a period of significantly increased rainfall that allowed the lake to overflow for the first time, marking the initiation of the modern Murray River. Subsequently, the lake fluctuated between: (1) a steady-state open lake system where water was overflowing across the Padthaway High spillpoint and active gorge cutting was proceeding, and (2) a closed lake system with no overflow that resulted in carbonate-precipitating conditions. During (1), shoreline erosion was occurring within the basin providing the terraces on which the Bungunnia Limestone carbonates were deposited during (2). In this, (1) is likely to correspond with significantly wetter Late Pleistocene interglacial and (2) with arid glacial conditions. The formation of the modern Murray River and the demise of palaeo megalake Bungunnia were therefore consequences of a combination of gorge cutting and increasing aridity resulting from interglacial–glacial climate oscillation superimposed on significant overall climatic change.

The current study begins with the premise that the archaeological record is inherently biased by processes
of landscape evolution. Older archaeological deposits are frequently under-represented at the surface of the
modern landscape due to cyclical periods of erosion and deposition during the Holocene (<11,500 cal BP).
These geomorphic processes are well expressed in District 1 where the many high-relief river canyons have
undergone intense periods of erosion, removing once habitable terraces; and the inter-montane valleys became
sediment traps as floodplains and alluvial fans developed episodically over the last 15,000 years. Just as
importantly, the Pacific coastline in District 1 has progressively been inundated and eroded since sea-level began
to rise at the end of the Pleistocene, continuing to the present day. The net-effect of these changes is a loss of
many portions of the landscape once available for human occupation, as well as a modern ground surface made
up of a mosaic of ancient and recent landforms, each of which has very different potential to preserve a complete
record of human occupation.

Við hámark síðasta jökulskeiðs ísaldar fyrir 23.000 árum var Ísland hulið stórum meginjökli sem teygði sig út á landgrunnsbrún umhverfis landið. Leysing jökulsins hófst fyrir um 18.000-15.000 árum og stóð yfir með hléum þar til fyrir taeplega 9000 árum þegar jöklar voru orðnir álíka stórir eða minni en jöklar landsins eru í dag. Við utanverðan Borgarfjörð er að finna mörg og heilleg setlög og landform frá lokum síðasta jökulskeiðs. Með því að kortleggja og rannsaka þessar jarðmyndanir má ýmislegt laera um hegðun jökla, sjávarstöðubreytingar og aðrar umhverfisbreytingar sem urðu á þeim tíma sem jökla leysti af landinu. Rannsóknir sem hafa verið gerðar á svaeðinu undanfarna 3-4 áratugi hafa skilað mikilli þekkingu á hörfun íslenska meginjökulsins og þeim umhverfisbreytingum sem urðu við lok síðasta jökulskeiðs. Undir lok síðasta jökulskeiðs urðu endurteknar framrásir jökuls úr Borgarfirði niður í Melasveit, sem þá lá undir sjávarmáli. Ummerki þessara framrása má finna víðsvegar á svaeðinu en þó einna helst í Ásbökkum, Melabökkum og Belgsholtsbökkum. Þar má sjá gömul sjávar-ÞORBJÖRG SIGFÚSDÓTTIR ÍVAR ÖRN BENEDIKTSSON Saga jökulframrása við utanverðan Borgarfjörð

La sedimentation holocene au sein d&#39;un bassin versant est conditionnee par les variations climatiques, l&#39;utilisation des sols et les heritages geomorphologiques. Les reponses morphogeniques a ces stimuli demeurent peu connues, particulierement pour les milieux semi-arides. Au cours de ce travail, je me suis attache a apporter des elements de reponse a cette problematique par l&#39;etude de l&#39;alluvionnement holocene du Gialias, le principal fleuve de Chypre. Ce travail associant des etudes geomorphologiques, stratigraphiques, sedimentologiques, magnetiques, micromorphologiques et geochimiques, couplees a un large corpus de datation couvrant l&#39;Holocene a permis de preciser les modalites du transfert solide amont/aval du bassin versant. Les resultats permettent de caracteriser l&#39;impact de l&#39;aridite sur le fonctionnement de l&#39;hydrosysteme. Ils montrent une adequation relativement bonne avec les connaissances regionales sur le paleoclimat. Les principales phas...

Carolina bays are oriented, shallow upland ponds occurring on the Atlantic Coastal Plain from New Jersey to North Florida.  Historically, Carolina bays have received attention from those speculating on a catastrophic emplacement through cometary, meteoric, or airburst impacts.  Recently, it has even been speculated that bays formed from steam outgassing within superheated distal ejecta from an impact over the Great Lakes region.  In this scenario, Quaternary-aged cover sands along the eastern seaboard, including "enigmatic" sand ridge scarps (e.g., Goldsboro Scarp) and Carolina bays, are purported to be causally linked to a catastrophic impact.  Carolina bay shape, orientation, and sand rims are all used as evidence for an alignment with an impact crater not observed and not known to exist.  Other researchers have posited that bays are linked with the purported Younger Dryas comet impact/airburst at ca. 12.9 ka, whereby bay formation was through aerial air-bursts or through a rain of distal impact ejecta to form oblique craters.

While these claims persist, our data indicate that Carolina bay origin and evolution are much better explained through more mundane, uniformitarian processes.  The evidence gathered from Carolina bays in South Carolina and beyond demonstrate bay genesis as oriented lakes and formation through lacustrine processes of wind on shallow ponded water.  Ray Kaczorowski's wind table modeling in 1977 revealed quite clearly how unidirectional winds on ponded water produce subaqueous circulation cells that shape and orient the bays, while constructing their sand rims as high-energy shoreline features. 

More recent work, including GPR, granulometry, OSL dating, and evidence from examination of LiDAR data, reveals that bays reflect long-term, pervasive and evolving environmental and climatological factors over millennia, not sudden or catastrophic events.  Thus, a catastrophic origin is neither supported by geological data, nor needed to explain features we attribute to Carolina bays; Carolina bays are neither enigmatic, nor mysterious, but rather are relatively well understood oriented lakes.  While nuances of bay formation through lacustrine shore processes remain to be resolved, the fundamental concepts are well understood and have been for some time.  Kaczorowski was right!

Coastal British Columbia is largely a rugged fjord-land archipelago. It has not always been so – over time, the coastline has changed configuration dramatically and the fauna and flora have seen multiple successions and extirpations. Through this, for the last 11,000 RCYBP years at least, resilient people made their living from the ocean and the land, shrugging off or taking advantage of environmental change. Similarly, archaeologists have worked the nooks and crannies of the coast for decades, surveying in the dense forest and digging in the deep middens, subject to similar environmental conditions as those they study and making quiet progress in regional culture histories. In more recent years, this area has been thrust to the forefront of research into the First Peopling of the American continents. As the Clovis First model began to be questioned, alternate modes and routes for the arrival of humans were brought in from the sidelines, including the hypothesized west coast route (e.g. Fladmark 1979). Not much research had been focused on this route, perhaps as Easton (1992) suggests, because of the terrestrial mindset of many archaeologists. Perhaps also, the prospects of finding sites on the deeply drowned landscapes or in the rugged, heavily forested hinterland was prohibitively daunting and led to a pessimistic outlook on success.

Geoelectric methods is well known as tool for exploration since the 1900's. As result of fast growing in computer technology, application of this method is become more popular. For example, at the first application, geoelectric methode is only used in groundwater exploration but presently it widely used in another subsurface interest such as mineral exploration and also environmental geology. Inversion technique developed by Day, has enabled geoelectric method used for configuration of 3-D. In order to identify dynamics object such as leachate seepage, groundwater monitoring, etc, this method could be developed as geoelectric 4-D. It is a 3-D geoelectric which performed several times at the same place but different times. Application of geoelectric 4-D to estimate direction and rate of infiltration of surface water was conducted in Bandung for two days. The result shows the infiltration rate is 0.34 to 1.2 m3 per hour. Based on this research, conclueded that 4-D geoelectric showed good results for the monitoring of surface water leakage into the ground. Furthermore, this method can be applied to subsurface environmental studies as a result of industrial activity. Abstrak. Metode Geolistrik telah dikenal sebagai alat untuk eksplorasi semenjak tahun 1900 –an. Disebabkan oleh cepatnya perkembangan teknologi komputer, maka penggunaan metode ini menjadi semakin populer. Sebagai contoh, pada awalnya metode geolistrik hanya di aplikasikan untuk eksplorasi air bawah tanah, tetapi saat ini sudah di aplikasikan untuk berbagai kepentingan penelitian bawah permukaan seperti eksplorasi mineral dan juga geologi lingkungan. Teknik inversi yang telah dikembangkan oleh Day Morrison, dan lainnya telah memungkinkan metode geolistrik menggunakan konfigurasi 3 dimensi (3-D). Untuk kepentingan identifikasi obyek yang dinamis seperti perembesan, pengamatan air bawah tanah dan lainnya, metode ini dapat dikembangkan menjadi geolistrik 4 dimensi (4-D), yaitu suatu metode geolistrik 3-D yang dilakukan beberapa waktu pengukuran pada tempat yang sama. Penelitian geolistrik 4-D untuk mengestimasi kecepatan dan arah perembesan air permukaan dilakukan di Kota Bandung selama 2 hari. Hasilnya memperlihatkan bahwa kcepatan perembesan adalah 0,34 sampai 1,2 m3 per jam. Berdasarkan penelitian ini disimpulkan bahwa metode geolistrik 4-D memperlihatkan hasil yang baik untuk monitoring perembesan air bawah permukaan. Lebih lanjut, metode ini dapat diaplikasikan untuk studi lingkungan bawah permukaan sebagai dampak aktivitas industri. Kata kunci: geolistrik 4-D, perembesan, studi bawah permukaan PENDAHULUAN Meskipun eksplorasi mineral sudah dilakukan semenjak ratusan tahun yang lalu tetapi catatan ilmiah mengenai hal ini baru dimulai pada tahun 1556 manakala Georgius Agricola mempublikasikan De re Metallica. Berpangkal dari buku ini maka beberapa tahun kemudian eksplorasi mineral dan dunia pertambangan mulai menggunakan suatu landasan ilmu pengetahuan. Sejarah mencatat ternyata di dunia pertambangan ini pula kemudian berkembang ilmu-ilmu lain yang sangat mendukung antara lain ilmu geologi dan geofisika. Perkembangan ilmu-ilmu tersebut sebenarnya sudah cukup lama namun aplikasi metoda geofisika pada dunia pertambangan ternyata baru dimulai pada tahun 1843, ketika Von Wrede menemukan bahwa variasi medan magnet bumi yang diukur oleh Lamont menggunakan magnetic theodolite ternyata dapat dipakai untuk mengidentifikasi bodi dari suatu magnetic ore. Sekira 25 tahun kemudian, seorang Professor bernama Robert Thalens mempublikasikan bukunya yang berjudul " On The Examination of Iron Ore deposits by Magnetic Methods ". Tahun