This book aims to provide the reader of Homer with the traditional knowledge and fluency in Homeric poetry which an original ancient audience would have brought to a performance of this type of narrative. To that end, Adrian Kelly presents the text of Iliad VIII next to an apparatus referring to the traditional units being employed, and gives a brief description of their semantic impact. He describes the referential curve of the narrative in a continuous commentary, tabulates all the traditional units in a separate lexicon of Homeric structure, and examines critical decisions concerning the text in a discussion which employs the referential method as a critical criterion. Two appendices deal with speech introduction formulae, and with the traditional function of Here and Athene in early Greek epic poetry.

Tsagalis, C., Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2008.01.25
Heath, M., Greece & Rome 55 (2008) 111–12
Clackson, J., Times Literary Supplement October 17 (2008) 33
Strauss Clay, J., Religious Studies Review 34 (2008) 289
Huxley, G. L., Hermathena 184 (2008) 93–5
Cook, E., Classical Review 59 (2009) 14–16
de Jong, I., Mnemosyne 62 (2009) 478–80
Blanc, A., Revue des études grecques 122 (2009) 237–9

The present study scrutinizes the outlawry and outlaws that appear in the Icelandic Family Sagas. It provides a thorough description about outlawry on the basis of extant law and saga texts as well as an analysis of referential connotations attached to it. The concept of outlawry was fundamental for the medieval Icelanders conceptions of their past. Indeed, understanding outlawry is essential for understanding many of the Family Sagas. Outlaws appear in saga texts in significant roles.

The Icelandic Family Sagas comprise a group of prose narratives that were written down in the 13th and 14th century Iceland. They are based on events and personae that belong to the 10th century Iceland. These narratives introduce many outlaws, out of which some 75 are named.

The Family Sagas are studied here as one corpus and special emphasis is given to those narrative features that repetitively appear in connection with outlawry and the outlaw characters. Therefore, the eventual objects of this study are the medieval Icelanders general conceptions of the historical outlawry as well as the variations of these conceptions throughout the period of saga writing. The medieval Icelanders general conceptions about the 10th 11th century, which are reflected in the Family Sagas, are here referred to as the Saga World. The Saga World is the historically based taleworld to which all of the Family Sagas refer.

The medieval law texts, which were derived from centuries old legislative traditions, reveal that outlawry meant banishing from the society and being denied all help, and that the outlawed person lost the protection of the law. In practice, outlawry was a death sentence.

However, outlaws occupy many differing roles in the saga narratives even in connection with recurrent narrative motifs. These roles reflect the social and spatial structures of the Saga World. The inspection of outlawry within these structures reveals that the definition of outlawry as it appears in the law texts is insufficient for understanding outlawry in the saga texts.

The social and spatial structures also provide a basis for the connotations of outlawry. In this study, these connotations are inspected primarily from the referential connections between outlawry in the Family Sagas and corresponding phenomena in other concurrent literature. This is done by studying the implementations of the basic elements of outlawry in the Family Sagas marginalization, banishing, rejection and solitariness within other literary genres and the taleworlds to which they refer. It is argued that these taleworlds reflect the same ideas that were associated with outlawry in the Family Sagas albeit in different forms and that these different forms reciprocally contributed to the conceptions of outlawry.

The variety of denotations and connotations of outlawry that is visible in the medieval Icelandic texts reflects the ambiguity of outlawry in the Family Sagas. This ambiguity may shed light to questions such as why an outlaw could be perceived as a hero in a literary genre that predominantly promoted law and order and why the same outlaw could be perceived as a villain on another occasion.

DE LA COMUNICACIÓN HUMANA COMO PRÁCTICA CULTURAL COMUNICACIÓN Y CULTURA Enfrentar en términos teóricos el problema de la comunicación humana exige, en primer lugar, entenderla como una práctica social inserta en contextos culturales específicos y, en segundo lugar, pensar a la cultura como una construcción simbólica, o mejor, como una compleja articulación de redes simbólicas (Cassirer 1997 [1944]; Geertz 1997 [1973]).

Santals are one of the highly significant and well-studied tribes of India which belongs to ProtoAustoroid community. (Guha, 1944). Creation myths of Santals revolve around the creation of
the world from the perspective of cosmology. Since the creation myths of santals are of human
civilization, it is important to look at the genesis of oral narratives on creation to trace the
historiography of the Santal tribe and their culture. At this juncture, most of the tribal
communities have been listed as endangered (Census 2011); scholars of humanities and social sciences in the contemporary scenario have started focusing on studying and preserving the tribal
languages and cultures in India. There have been several translations of the santal literature,
scholarships such as W.H.Archer’sThe Blue Groove, SitakantMahapatra’sThe Awakened Wind:
The Oral Poetry of the Indian Tribes. The scholarship has been focusing to locate and validate the
tribal literature as a genre. Santals are rich in oral narratives such as songs, poems, and stories on
cultivation, nature, marriage, and festivals but there is a lack of knowledge about the dawn of
human civilisation among the tribal scholarship. Since tribal community have come in contact
with several amalgamations of the colonial penetration, Hindu institution of idol worship,
Christian missionaries, and the dawn of technological advancement, it is important to be aware
of one’s root in order to conquer the identity conflict among the tribals. There are several
variations on the Santal creation myth, particularly in the process of telling, retelling and sharing
across generations and shifting socio-cultural environment. The study seeks to move backward to
the inception of the world as believed by the Santal tribe, focusing on Binti, literally translated
as ‘prayer’ or ‘plea’, a song of cosmology, generally recited by a group of three or more singers
at marriage ceremonies. This study primarily examines the creation myth called ‘Binti’,
documented and translated into English by Sitakant Mahapatra in his work ‘The Awakened
Wind: The Oral Poetry of the Indian Tribes’ focusing on re-stabilizing tribal identity and
analyses the Santal folklore tradition, oral narratives as performative arts and creation myths in
translation from the aspect of ethnic culture and its significance among Santals. The paper also
focuses on the historiography of the Santal world view and Santal culture.
Keywords: Santal tribe, Binti, Creation Myth, Tribal Culture, Identity.

My scholarly interests place oral histories exploring the performance aspect of intellectual and educational identities within broader historical contexts to explore ways in which institutions and cultures impose identities. It does so with a particular eye to the role of standardized testing. Exploring these relationships is important because, motivated by a faith in their use as an accurate measure of educational quality, the number of K-12 students taking standardized tests in U.S. public schools is at an all-time high, as is enthusiasm for using standardized testing to assess educational quality, despite evidence that it narrows the definition of education to one that devalues critical thinking and knowledge creation in favor of more easily tested abilities related to skill-based job training. The results of such research are of interest to me as a writing teacher since testing and the preparation for it have a direct effect on how students define what qualifies as " good writing " and, by extension, the writing selves they bring to the classroom.

Forthcoming in a volume edited by Haraldur Bernhardsson. This article examines Landnámabók utilizing the anthropological distinction between place and space, defined within an understanding of phenomenology and emplaced paractice centered around the body. Based on a close analysis of several passages in Landnámabók, it argues that although there are some abstract spatial references in Landnámabók, the text shows a persistant concern with place rather than space. This manifests itself primarily in an interest in clockwise circumlocution which creates an empathetic familiarity with the landscape, an embodied map of the island. The implications of this finding are then explored in three ways: what it might suggest for other medieval texts that have been thought to demonstrate a greater interest in spatial categories but whose emplacement may be overlooked; how such emplacement could reflect a historical tradition tied to the act of enculturating an unknown land through a semi-ritualized and sacred act; and how appreciating the emplacement of the text and its emphasis on bodily interaction wth the landscape helps modern scholars situate the Old Norse corpus within the history of Western European thought about land and landscape. Our modern habitus and cultural preferences for space has, it is argued, caused Old Norse scholars to overlook or misunderstand the preponderence of evidence of an emplaced, pre-Cartesian world view permeating medieval manuscript pages. Landnámabók is presented as extreme in its dependence on knowledge of place for textual cohesion, but not unique within a textual tradition that is co-constituted with the landscape. The ubiquity of this close relationship between the body, the landscape, and the text suggests a culturally engrained attitude that would have had long-term efficacy outside of the texual tradition.

This paper aims to put the conference theme in relation to Ulmer's thinking on what he has called "applied grammatology" and electracy. Gregory Ulmer is Professor Emeritus of English and Media Studies at the University of Florida; author of books such as Applied Grammatology (1985), Internet Invention (2003), Electronic Monuments (2006). Continuously nurturing a pedagogical interest, Ulmer devoted his research to explore the shift in the apparatus from orality to literacy, and from literacy to electracy. According to him, new media were affecting our moment the way print affected Renaissance Europe, or the way the alphabet affected Ancient Greece. Grammatology-the history and theory of writing-«shows that one of the first uses of a new technology of memory is the recording of the extant works of culture: Homeric epics inscripted in Ancient Greece; Bible printed in Renaissance Europe; novel filmed in modern America. The content of the new media, McLuhan observed, is the old media» (Ulmer 2003: 4). Here, an overlapping of transcodification and re-mediation can be easily singled out. Nevertheless, we continue to reproduce Aristotelian categories (which is fine for literacy), when what our civilization needed was the equivalent of literacy for what is now called new media: they were becoming a predominant site of cultural life, and people needed not just to consume media, but become "literate" in media. So Ulmer introduced the term electracy to describe the kind of "literacy" or skill and facility necessary to exploit the full communicative potential of new electronic media. Moreover, he suggests that «performance may be to electracy what definition was to literacy» (38). If this sentence makes any sense, we should take for serious the Biopetics/Literary Darwinism assumption that the basic forms of experience which narratives always expose us to are re-enactment, repetition, and rewriting namely , kinds of performance behaviors (Cometa 2017).

Sandro LANDI, Stampa, censura e opinione pubblica in età moderna, Bologna, Il Mulino, 2011, 150 S., ISBN 978-88-15-23391-2 Buchdruck, Zensur und öffentliche Meinung sind grundlegende Phänomene des frühneuzeitlichen Europas. Aufgrund ihrer fundamentalen Bedeutung in der Geschichte der westlichen Welt sind diese Begriffe seit langem Thema der Geschichtswissenschaft. Sandro Landi legt nicht nur einen aktuellen Forschungsüberblick zu den drei Themen vor, sondern lädt dazu ein, sie auf eine weite Zeitspanne (vom 15. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert) und für einen geographischen Raum, der sich von östlichen Europa bis zur arabischen Welt hin ausdehnt, gemeinsam zu analysieren.

En Texaco hay una tensión constante entre la oralidad y la escritura. Aunque la heroína de la novela se aferre
a su palabra criolla, poco a poco debe ir desplazándola por la escritura y por el francés que llegan con la
colonización. Sin embargo, para no negar su pasado, ella se ve en la obligación de mezclar su tradición con la
impuesta por los colonos. Así, tanto Texaco como su cultura se caracterizarán por la hibridación. La arquitectura
y el habla serán el símbolo de la mezcla, del cruce de dos culturas: la alta cultura y la cultura popular. En este
trabajo me interesa analizar la obra desde el concepto de hibridación y desde la postura de Ángel Rama en La
ciudad letrada —opuesta a la ciudad real—, pues este autor muestra cómo la palabra escrita se constituye
en uno de los aparatos culturales que reglamenta la permanencia del poder. Se tendrán en cuenta términos
como oralidad, escritura, hibridación y cultura popular.

Il testo si interroga sulla nozione e sullo statuto del discorso letterario soprattutto in relazione alle nuove scritture che emergono sulla Rete. Più in generale il saggetto propone una visione allargata del campo letterario fino al punto di suggerire che si pratica più letteratura di quando si pratichi la non letteratura.

In this article I analyze Basque oral poetry, or bertsolaritza, by four poets who live in the
United States. We start with a remarkable fact: all four bertsolaris come from the Spanish region
of Navarre. They include Jesus “Jess” Goñi, born in Oronoz in 1947; Martin Goikoetxea, born in
Gorriti in 1948; Jesus “Jess” Arriada, born in Arizkun in 1935; and Johnny Kurutxet, born in San
Francisco in 1946 but raised in Esterenzubi and resident there until the age of 20. The overall
situation in the USA has been well described by the researcher Joxe Mallea in several
publications (2003, 2005). Within that context this paper specifically examines the production of
the American bertsolaris.1 The corpus I will use for this analysis consists of a selection of 237
bertsos composed by these four oral poets and recorded and transcribed in the USA.

I once was offered by a jasare — a genealogist and historian griot — to meet the descendants of a great warrior; he wanted to tell me the former’s story and glorious feats on Ghanaian soil. Both the jasare and I were astonished to find out that the men of that lineage didn’t know this ancestor, no matter how famous he was. Only those who had moved to Ghana had heard his name and knew he came from their actual village.
Both my survey of the jasare in the songhay-zarma region of Niger and that peculiar case where transmission of memory seems lacking, have led me to be deeply concerned about the issue of memory ; therefore, I wish to develop four different aspects ; though, what is at stakes here goes far beyond Zarma society. 
1) What kind of learning process do the jasare(s) provide for? I shall first describe the memory process of recalling ancestors and narratives, starting from my own learning and jasare metadiscourse. Then I shall deal with the role and experiences of the jasare. Finally, I will link these practices and representations to research in the field of psychology and cognitive anthropology on « semantic memory » and « autobiographical memory ».
2) Putting in perspective this learning process, situated speaking (enunciation) shows how central the genealogical list is. If it forms a mnemonic basis for the jasare, its role is especially to spot a person out of the crowd, vouching him with historic importance by admitting him into a lineage, but above all into History. How then, shall omissions be considered? Either circumstantial or systematic, unwilling or deliberate, they are definitely meaningful; and when noticed, they are construed. Nevertheless, only the jasare’s metadiscourse lets us know. Is it the jasare’s agency that has to be understood here?
3) What does it mean for a dominating social group, as M. Bloch (1995) puts it, « to delegate its historic memory of the past » and its public enunciation to an inferior social group such as the jasare, considering the former cannot claim to power?
4) According to M. Maurice Halbwachs (1925) memorization occurs in social environments. But when a society is changing, its environment does the same ; and what was considered essential to remember has become meaningless and can create conflict ; similarly to what is happening to the jasare whose presence during the ceremonies is disputed. Thus, how shall we as anthropologists question these changes ?

Brief note on the contributor
Anthropolinguiste, Sandra Bornand est actuellement chargée de recherche au CNRS et membre du Llacan (UMR 8135). Docteur ès Lettres à l’Université de Lausanne (2002), ses recherches sont consacrées à l’anthropologie linguistique, la littérature orale et à l’anthropologie sociale des sociétés songhay-zarma. Elle est membre du comité éditorial de la revue  des Cahiers de Littérature Orale et des Classiques Africains, édition d’ouvrages bilingues. Auteur de nombreux articles, elle a également publié Le discours du griot généalogiste chez les Zarma du Niger (Karthala, 2005), Parlons zarma (L’Harmattan, 2006) et Anthropologie des pratiques langagières (avec Cécile Leguy, Colin, 2014) et dirigé plusieurs ouvrages collectifs dont Pratiques d’enquêtes (avec Brunhilde Biebuyck et Cécile Leguy, Cahiers de Littérature Orale, n°63/64, 2008), Autour de la performance (avec Ursula Baumgardt, Cahiers de Littérature Orale n°65, 2009) et D’un rythme à l’autre (avec Maria Manca, Cahiers de Littérature Orale n°73-74, 2013). 
Anthropolinguist, Sandra Bornand is currently researcher (CNRS, LLacan, UMR 8135). Doctor ès Lettres from the University of Lausanne (20029, her research is devoted to linguistic anthropology, oral literature and social anthropology of the songhay-zarma societies. She is a member of the editorial board of the Journal Cahiers de Littérature Orale et and Classiques Africains, an edition of bilingual books. Author of numerous papers, she notably published Le discours du griot généalogiste chez les Zarma du Niger (Karthala, 2005), Parlons zarma (L’Harmattan, 2006) and Anthropologie des pratiques langagières (with Cécile Leguy, Colin, 2014). She directed many collective works as Pratiques d’enquêtes (with Brunhilde Biebuyck and Cécile Leguy, Cahiers de Littérature Orale n°63-64, 2008), Autour de la performance (with Ursula Baumgardt, Cahiers de Littérature Orale n°65, 2009) or D’un rythme à l’autre (with Maria Manca, Cahiers de Littérature Orale n°73-74, 2013).

J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. London -New York : Methuen, 1982. V této studii odkazujeme výhradně na české vydání: Technologizace slova: Mluvená a psaná řeč. Přel. P. Fantys. Praha : Karolinum, 2006. Omyly Waltera Onga ve světle indické orality Svět literatury 17.36 (2007): 214-248 ---Omyly Waltera Onga ve světle indické orality Lubomír Ondračka 218 219

This essay brings together George Orwell’s great novel and a theory of writing as humankind’s master-technology. I approach writing through a non-poststructuralist (and so, an uncommon) lens, as it has come down from the works of, for instance, Walter Ong and Jack Goody. On this theoretical foundation I build an argument for writing, in its technological sense, as the true dystopian technology of Oceania. I show how the underlying conflict in Orwell’s novel is a dystopian version of the ancient conflict between orality and the disembodiment of speech in writing. In the end it is only when speech has been entirely replaced by writing that the totalitarian state prevails absolutely. It turns out that, not the most modern, but the most ancient technology presents the ultimate threat to humankind

The book Orlaity and Literacy is celebrating its 30th anniversary since first release, all these years it has become a text book and guide for the missionaries. The writer Walter J. Ong (1912-2003) was a professor in Emeritus at Saint Louis University (I) had a fascinating insight into this subject. World has most sophisticated equipment’s and other electronics at the same time still there are some places that they don’t have a alphabets to articulate their own language.

With this work we have proposed to contribute to the literary heritage of oral tradition already recorded of the Mexican peoples and cultures of today with the publication of several stories and unpublished interviews conducted in 2019 in the region of the Altos de Chiapas around a character known as Sombrerón. The informants are speakers of the Tsotsil and Tzeltal languages (both from the Mayan family), in addition to Spanish. We have tried to limit as much as possible our margin of interpretation and to stick to the conclusions that can be drawn from the words of the narrators, as well as to respect as much as possible their mode of enunciation. We will introduce an ambivalent character who fulfils different functions that we could describe as "positive", such as being a protector of the mountain or a guardian of the seeds, but who can also pose enormous dangers for those who approach him. Our objective was to analyze the literary and cosmological imaginary that exists in different Chiapas cultural groups around the same figure of the oral tradition that goes beyond the limits of this region to highlight the permeable and itinerant potential of the oral tradition.

Con este trabajo nos hemos propuesto contribuir al acervo literario de tradición oral ya registrado de los pueblos y culturas mexicanas de la actualidad con la publicación de varios relatos y entrevistas inéditas realizadas en 2019 en la región de los Altos de Chiapas en torno a un personaje conocido como Sombrerón. Los informantes son hablantes de las lenguas tsotsil y tzeltal (ambas de la familia maya), además del castellano. Hemos intentado limitar todo lo posible nuestro margen de interpretación y ceñirnos a las conclusiones que puedan extraerse de las palabras de los narradores, así como respetar lo máximo posible su modo de enunciación. Daremos a conocer un personaje ambivalente que cumple diferentes funciones que podríamos calificar de «positivas», como ser protector del monte o guardián de las semillas, pero que también puede suponer enormes peligros para quien se acerca a él. Nuestro objetivo consistió en analizar el imaginario literario y cosmológico que existe en diferentes grupos culturales chiapanecos en torno a una misma figura de la tradición oral que sobrepasa los límites de esta región para poner de relieve la potencialidad permeable e itinerante de la tradición oral.

En hommage aux femmes déguisées en hommes pour accéder à la parole sur la place publique, sur les lieux  où les « halqa» sont l’unique  apanage des hommes
En hommage, aussi, aux hommes déguisés en femmes pour remplacer les femmes absentes(ifiées) de l’espace publique des « halqa »
FATIMA- ZAHRA SALIH

This paper sketches out a history of ancient and modern discussions on the aesthetic “imperfection” of the Iliad and the Odyssey. The views of, among others, Horace, Pseudo-Longinus, F.A. Wolf, F.W. Nietzsche will be examined, as well as more recent evaluations of the Homeric poems. A passing comment by U. Eco will also inspire some reflections

In this article it is argued that Odin's discovery of the runes when hanging on the tree, as related in the Icelandic Hávamál, is not an indigenous attribute of that god. Nor should the attribution of the invention of letters to Mercury in the Old English  Prose Solomon and Saturn be linked to the Hávamál, as is generally done. Instead I demonstrate that Odin's invention is an adaptation of Roman Classical mythology in which the invention of letters is ascribed to Mercury. The Romans in their turn borrowed this myth from the Greeks, with Hermes Trismagistos playing that role, while the Greeks and borrowed it from the Egyptians, equating their god Thoth with Hermes.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. This content downloaded from 141.211.4.224 on Wed, 29 Jul 2015 00:31:48 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions IN JORDAN, Bedouin tribes are flourishing in intellectual climates that, just a generation ago, were thought uniquely inhospitable to them. The print trade is perhaps the most unlikely of these newly tribalized zones. Among Jordan's administrative elites, popular literacy was once prescribed as an antidote to tribalism and other signs of "backwardness." Yet the results of mass education have not been what the bureaucrats predicted. Instead of prompting Bedouin to put away tribal values and adopt modem, nationalistic ones, popular literacy has encouraged them to read and write about tribal values as if these belonged to (indeed, gave shape to) a modem nation. Today, Amman's bookstores are well stocked with titles celebrating Jordan's tribal heritage, and the countryside is filled with Bedouin historians who transcribe the "talk of the elders" in hopes of someday publishing it. Muhammad Hamdan, a member of the 'Adwan tribe, is characteristic of this new, textualizing breed (see Figure 1)

It is widely assumed that the “born again” and “born of water and spirit” sayings in the Gospel of John, Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Hippolytus, the Pseudo-Clementines, and the Apostolic Constitutions derive independently via oral tradition. This article demonstrates that the patristic sayings are based on the written Gospel of John.

ALLA DERIVA DEL FOGLIO
Sul fraseggio dello zeroglifico spatoliano per vedere e sentire di più
di Giovanni Fontana

Sono ormai passati quasi trent'anni dalla scomparsa di Adriano Spatola. L'anniversario cadrà il 23 novembre 2018, ma purtroppo, per ragioni diverse, ancora non si riesce ad avere in Italia un'edizione completa delle sue opere, nonostante si registri, anche nelle nuove generazioni, uno spiccato interesse per il suo lavoro, come testimoniato dai numerosi interventi in rete. Molto si può leggere nel web soprattutto grazie al lavoro del fratello Maurizio che ha raccolto nel suo archivio digitale numerose anastatiche dell'opera poetica, rapportandola a documenti rari, se non addirittura introvabili negli archivi o nelle biblioteche, e accompagnandola spesso da commenti, osservazioni e saggi di grande utilità per inquadrare la figura e l'opera di suo fratello 1. Di fatto, però, su Adriano Spatola, nonostante siano stati pubblicati diversi studi di un certo rilievo, 2 c'è ancora molto da scoprire e da dire, specialmente per quanto riguarda la sua attività di sovvertitore di modelli linguistici ed espressivi, in particolare nel settore performativo, sonoro e visivo. Particolarmente importante appare quest'ultimo aspetto perché implica una serie di considerazioni sulla sua poetica che potrebbero trovare utile applicazione nell'analisi degli altri ambiti creativi, incluso quello dei testi lineari. C'è chi pensa che l'immaginazione sia qualcosa di essenzialmente visivo. E indiscutibilmente c'è chi pensa per immagini. In quest'ambito, poi, c'è chi lavora per valorizzare il dato visivo della scrittura. C'è chi ne va matto. Del resto sono ormai ben note le qualità figurali di certi testi, siano essi tipografici, dattiloscritti, composti al computer, vergati a mano o dipinti: la loro forma dice al di là di ciò che dice. Aggiunge. Offre un bonus a chi sa ben guardare. A seconda di come è scritta, infatti, una parola può trascendere il suo significato principale o incamerare attributi ampliando non poco la propria sfera semantica. Non solo è possibile registrare sorprendenti passaggi dalla denotazione all'area della connotazione, ma si possono aprire ampie prospettive di significato e di senso, talvolta del tutto singolari o addirittura impreviste. Nel caso delle opere visive di Adriano Spatola dovremmo essere a zero sul piano dei significati, avendo scelto l'artista di giocare la sua partita esclusivamente a livello di significanti. Sappiamo bene che ogni opera costituisce un sistema linguistico e che, nei casi più spinti di chiusura verso l'altro da sé, dice comunque se stessa. Lo zeroglifico spatoliano sembra rispondere a questa regola: non ricerca infatti implicazioni nella realtà, ma è esso stesso realtà. La sua fase di progetto coincide perfettamente con il processo di realizzazione dell'opera. Concluso tale percorso, che rappresenta un modo tutto particolare di rapportarsi al dato reale, fatto di ritagli, di gesti, di superfici di scorrimento, di congiunzioni, di sovrapposizioni, di sguardi misuratori, di esistenze e resistenze, si giunge sul filo del traguardo di una nuova realtà. La realtà dell'opera. Che costituisce un elemento nuovo. Un nuovo dato reale, appunto. Che si aggiunge al mare magnum della realtà esterna. Rivoluzione di forme. Poesia astratta. Ma qualunque sia l'ambito al quale ascrivere il prodotto poetico non si esce dal vincolo della significazione. Per quanto ci si possa sforzare di allontanarsi dai contenuti, resta pur sempre evidente il dato materiale dell'opera che nasce in un contesto

This thesis examines Hip Hop as a genre of oral literature. To begin this study, I examine a wide range of scholarship on orality, including what is considered the canonical work, Orality and Literature, by Walter Ong. This theorist’s conclusion draws a binary opposition between orality and writing. Hip Hop music encourages a broader definition of orality that approaches what African author Ngugi wa Thiong’o calls orature. I use Hip Hop to push back on Ong’s conclusions, and demonstrate how orality and writing can coexist in a culture. I found that there were three categories of Hip Hop songs that demonstrated the link between orality and writing. First, there are two types of Hip Hop songs that that form an intertextual relation with other songs through sampling. The first kind features a DJ that samples words and phrases to make it appear as if they are speaking over the beat. The second kind, reinterprets what the original speaker’s message was by sampling their music in a new song. Second, there is a group of Hip Hop songs that feature unique vocal styles that demonstrate how the artist intends to give an oral performance, even though they wrote the lyrics before performing them. Through these examples, my thesis examines how Hip Hop acts as orature, and broadens the definition of orality. Third, there are certain Hip Hop songs that play off of the traditional storytelling form of Western culture, demonstrating how oral culture can influence written and oral styles of storytelling.

A wide range of Arabic language variation in form, code choice and orthographic script was wielded by Lebanese political protestors in their graffiti and political placards in Beirut in 2015. That summer, civil protests spilled out into the streets to critique the government inaction over waste management and overall corruption. I will focus on four tactics that highlight a trend towards linguistic transgression and strategic recontextualization of Arabic discourse in these protests: reworking of state iconography; inscribing irreverent spoken dialect in written form; incorporation of hashtag (#) participant and interpretive frameworks ; and the recontextualization of traditional calligraphic forms in new contexts. This paper explores the intertextuality of protest signage and consider the ways in which the transgression of traditional linguistic boundaries might inform understandings of the social dynamics of contemporary politics in Lebanon.

In the prosperous land where I live, a mysterious task is underway to invigorate the minds of the populace, and to vitalize the spirits of our children. For a decade, now, parents, politicians, and educators of all forms have been raising funds to bring computers into every household in the realm, and into every classroom from kindergarten on up through college. With the new technology, it is hoped, children will learn to read much more efficiently, and will exercise their intelligence in rich new ways. Interacting with the wealth of information available online, children's minds will be able to develop and explore much more vigorously than was possible in earlier eras -and so, it is hoped, they will be well prepared for the technological future.

Celebration of the bicentennial of the poet's birth in 2013 was characterized by a surprising intensity of the events as well as by the multiplicity and diversity of the agencies and actors involved. In this chapter, the input into marking the bicentennial by four central agencies is briefly described and tentatively analyzed:
1. (largely official) celebrations by the Montenegrin government bodies, aiming at recuperating Njegoš as the Montenegrin national poet, peaking in October with ceremony in front of the renovated Njegoš Mausoleum on the top of the Lovćen Mountain. This canonization of Njegoš has to be seen as the third of its kind (the first two established Njegoš as a Serbian national poet after the WWI and Yugoslav national poet after 1951 – at the occasion of the centennial of his death);
2. contribution by the Serbian Orthodox Church in Montenegro: in May 2013, the notorious Mitropolite of the Montenegrin-Littoral Eparchy, which has its seat in the Monastery of Cetinje, ordered to introduce the icon of Njegoš into the named monastery, thereby making Njegoš the saint. With the exception of some Serb ultranationalist networks, the prevailing reaction to this sanctification of the poet (not confirmed by the synod of the Serbian Orthodox Church) was one of derision;
3. celebrating the bicentennial in Serbia. The focus is on a small network of radical nationalist poets mostly from Belgrade, headed by Matija Bećković;
4. the contribution of the Montenegrin diaspora in Croatia. Dimitrije Popović, a Cetinje-born sculptor living in Zagreb donated to his native town an abstract sculpture named Homage to Njegoš, which was inaugurated in May in a central place between the Monastery and the Njegoš's Palace (Biljarda). The less known Montenegrin-Croatian »connection« (based on the long history of the interaction in the Eastern Adriatic) was thus given a significant recognition.

Na segunda metade do século XI, um áspero conflito entre a igreja romana e a
corte germânica levou o papa Gregório VII a decretar a deposição e excomunhão do
sucessor imperial. Tido pelos historiadores como o capítulo central da chamada
“Reforma Gregoriana”, este evento é usualmente encarado como um importante
marco de ascensão política do papado na História Ocidental e da instauração de um
amplo processo de institucionalização da igreja romana. O maior emblema desta via
de “estatização” pela qual teria enveredado o poder pontifício foi, afirmam os historiadores, a expansão do direito canônico, cujo avanço teria assentado as bases do trato legal que nos séculos seguinte se apoderaria do Ocidente. Portanto, um império da lei e das normas escritas teria sido ruidosamente anunciado através das ações gregorianas.

The representation of reality in the Homeric Odyssey has spurred many conflicting interpretations due to the question of its orality. The awareness of the oral tradition can be traced in the history of Homer criticism and it starts with the Analysts (19 th century higher criticism) that sought to determine how fragments of earlier poems had been layered together and culminated with Milman Parry's (1928) discovery that the Homeric epic exhibits oral methods of composition (Ong, 18-20). The oral quality of the text and the oral culture that produced it demanded a new type of criticism that shifted the focus from text as product to text as a transcript of a process, at the end of the last century (Rabel, Bakker). This type of criticism addressed issues of representation not in terms of sign-referent (a structuralist mode of reading), but in terms of action-model, as we will see. It also distances itself from the oral-formulaic theory that views the epic poetry of Homer as a set of formulae coupled with performance as improvisation; instead, it understands oral culture as a fundamentally different way to perceive the world in regards to heroic events of the past (kleos) in the memory of their previous performances. Such an oral-oriented reading also draws from the archeology of mimesis as it appears in the pre-literate Greece, and subsequently problematises both ancient "narratological" approaches (Plato and Aristotle) and modern narratology (De Jong). The present study will address two aspects of mimesis: 1) performance, not only representation, imitation, but enactment, presentification (Spăriosu); and 2) visualisation, starting from Auerbach's stance that the Homeric world is "brightly and uniformly illuminated" and that "everything is visible" (3) and placing this stance near or against oral-oriented criticism (Ong, Bakker). This type of emerging criticism in classical studies in the last century paralleled the general changes the conceptual apparatus of literary theory faced when explaining postmodernist self-reflexive literature. See Linda Hutcheon's (1981) observation that metafictional literature recovered the performance ("mimesis of process") that was already embedded in Aristotle's mimesis (18).

This article discusses the first Indian compilation of the four Vedic Saṃhitās into a printed book in the year 1971 entitled “Bhagavān Vedaḥ.” This endeavor was the life’s mission of an udāsīn ascetic called Guru Gaṅgeśvarānand Mahārāj (1881–1992) who in the year 1968 founded the “Gaṅgeśvar Caturved Sansthān” in Bombay and appointed one of his main disciples, Svāmī Ānand Bhāskarānand, to oversee the publication of the book. His main motivation was to have a physical representation of the Vedas for Hindus to be able to have the darśana (auspicious sight) of the Vedas and worship them in book form. This contribution explores the institutions and individuals involved in the editorial work and its dissemination, and zooms into the processes that allowed for the transition from orality to print culture, and ultimately what it means when the Vedas are materialized into “the book of the Hindus.”

Resumen: La comunicación simbólica y verbal es una de las raíces fundamentales de lo humano. La expresión oral ha sido el medio acústico en que se encarnó la palabra desde sus orígenes. La oralidad es un hecho central que ha acompañado a los seres humanos desde sus inicios hasta la actualidad. Sin embargo, se ha ido transformando en el tiempo. Y nunca ha existido como sistema de comunicación único, sino que ha convivido, sistémicamente, con otras dinámicas de comunicación no oral. Subrayamos especialmente las interacciones y transformaciones de lo visual y lo auditivo cuando operan conjuntamente.
En esta reflexión se sostiene que, tras una primera oralidad que se extendió hasta el nacimiento de la escritura, y tras una segunda oralidad que ha convivido durante siglos con la escritura manuscrita y con la imprenta, se está gestando desde hace décadas una tercera oralidad, oralidad múltiple o multimodal, transoralidad, que corresponde al tercer entorno según los planteamientos de Javier Echeverría. En el nuevo escenario, lejos de decaer en importancia, está adquiriendo un nuevo protagonismo. Las investigaciones futuras deberán esbozar las características de la nueva oralidad, sus puntos fuertes y débiles, especialmente entre los nativos digitales.

Palabras-clave: Oralidad. Tercer entorno. Transmodernidad. Transhumanización. Transoralidad. Cultura digital.

The author of this book, one soon discovers, is no impassionate researcher. Thigpen sheds tears during her interviews. She stands up emotionally for people who, as a result of not being able to read, identify themselves as shamed, degraded, left behind, ignorant, or poor. Her actions demonstrate her implicit advocacy: we should shed tears with the poor, for the poor. For her, getting connection with people is more important than other missiological methods, like good ways of telling stories. Connection trumps other missiological methodologies.