DESALINATION AND WATER TREATMENT, 2017

Qatar is an arid land with very scarce natural freshwater resources. Its groundwater resources are limited and are being heavily depleted by inefficient irrigation methods and the growing population. As a result, Qatar relies primarily on desalination of seawater. Accurate assessment of water resources, consumption levels and virtual water trade is the first step in formulating an effective water resources management policy. This paper, hence, reviews the renewable and non-renewable water resources and the disaggregated consumption trends as well virtual water trade in Qatar. The total groundwater produced internally is 56 Mm 3 /year and its consumption rate is 250 Mm 3 /year which is mainly dominated by farms. The agricultural sector consumes 91% of all renewable water resources in Qatar. The total desalination capacity is 1.4 Mm 3 /d which is primarily from thermal desalination plants. Water consumption rate is 200 m 3 /capita/year. Regarding virtual water trade, it was found that Qatar is a net virtual water importer and imports an average of 1.35 billion m 3 /year of virtual water. The per capita water footprint is 1,554 m 3 /capita/year. We recommend that the water conservation efforts in Qatar should follow an integrated approach taking into account supply as well as demand side management.

Desalination

Comprehensive environmental impact of thermal desalination is poorly understood in Middle Eastern and North African region, especially for multistage flash (MSF) desalination. Nearly 75% of Qatar's municipal water supply is being produced by MSF due to process reliability and other advantages, which is highly energy-intensive and creates an enormous environmental burden. Hence, this paper aimed to develop a multi-faceted, life-cycle based framework that quantifies the overall environmental and human health impacts of MSF desalination in Qatar. Three different MSF systems were examined by varying the gain ratio (GOR) through life cycle assessment. Different environmental loads were examined and evaluated, including climate change, freshwater eutrophication, fossil fuel depletion, ozone depletion, and human toxicity. The results showed that the modified MSF configuration with higher GOR released 7.32 kg CO 2 for 1 m 3 of water production while the plant with lowest GOR released 12.6 kg. Quantitative analysis of the environmental degradation caused by desalination reflects the reality of water use in Qatar and can motivate users to reduce their water consumption as part of the Qatar's national vision 2030. The implication of this study is particularly important at a regional level as it serves as a preliminary baseline for a more efficient water strategy. 1.1. Qatar water security & desalination In the State of Qatar, Rainfall (80 mm avg. per year) and groundwater are the only freshwater resources in Qatar, and underground water is extensively abstracted in agricultural activities. The annual per-capita renewable water resources (rainfall and groundwater) in Qatar are 71 m 3 , while 1000 m 3 /yca is considered as the minimum required sustaining life [1]. Owing to geographical limitations and the substantial increase in population over the last few decades (Fig. 1), seawater desalination has received focus to make it the sole supply of potable water and maintain sustainable development. According to the water desalination statistics of 2015, approximately 493 million m 3 of desalted water was produced in 2014 [4]. In this water scenario, Qatar has one of the highest water consumption rates per capita of almost 500 L/day [5]. QNDS (Qatar National Development Strategy) estimated that, by 2020, water

2011

W ater is one of the most precious and valuable resources affecting the Saudi development plans. The acute shortage of fresh water r esources poses a major challenge in Saudi Arabia. Demand for fresh water is on the rise assufficientwater is no longer available to meet daily needs. Some 95% of water comes from aquifers. Desalination plants and waste water reclamation projects provide about 4% and 1% water respectively. About 30% of thewaterfor householdconsumption comes from desalinating plants. The users of desalinated water of the Kingdomrepresent about 26% of world total. In the light of the present scenario of declining water r esources and increasing demand, the Kingdom must considerthe most viable option i.e. Water Demand Management (WDM) .However, othernecessary water conservation measures should not be overlooked . The article also suggests that in order to use water resourc es efficiently ,factorssuch as economics, social aspects and environmental conditions must receive du...

To cite this article: Omar K.M. Ouda (2014): Domestic water demand in Saudi Arabia: assessment of desalinated water as strategic supply source, Desalination and Water Treatment To link to this article: http://dx.

SIAM Undergraduate Research Online, 2014

The objective of this paper is to introduce models to determine an effective, feasible, and cost-efficient strategy for Saudi Arabia's water supply system to meet its projected demand in 2025. This paper uses cost minimizing and production maximizing approaches to build the models. The water management system is divided into three processes-desalination, distribution, and wastewater treatment. For desalination and wastewater treatment aspects of the water supply, we use a Cobb-Douglas production maximization model. The model determines the optimal levels of different inputs that maximize the production of usable water, given the Saudi Arabia government's budget constraints. For the water distribution model, a cost function is minimized with the 2025 water demand constraint and is used to determine the optimal diameter of the pipes and hydraulic head. Using the desalination process model, the paper found that the optimal level of input of electricity is 4.9 billion kW h and the maximized water output is estimated at 3.3 billion m 3. In addition, using the wastewater treatment model, the paper found that the optimal level of electricity input is 26.5 billion kW h annually and the maximized level of water production is 7.7 billion m 3. The water distribution model estimates that, given the 2025 water demand in Saudi Arabia, the setup and operating cost of the water distribution grid is approximately $68.88 million. The model also estimates that a minimum pipe diameter of 5.37 m and hydraulic head of 1186.14 m is required to meet the demand of three sectors-agriculture, industry, and domestic. * This paper was an Outstanding Winning paper in COMAP's Mathematical Contest in Modeling 2013.

Frontiers in Environmental Science, 2022

Kuwait is an arid country with one of the world's highest consumption rates per capita. It suffers from severe water scarcity. Annual national expenditure on direct water supply and distribution in Kuwait is substantial, which is a burden on the country's economy. The nation's dependency on imported food due to water scarcity is also considered a primary political and security concern. These conditions call for much more efficient use and management of water in Kuwait. This study aims to undertake an extensive analysis of the country's water resources and review current management strategies for better planning and management. The main sources of freshwater in Kuwait are seawater desalination, brackish groundwater, and recycling wastewater. Seawater desalination is the primary source that produces 61% of freshwater for drinking, agriculture, and other water-dependent industries. Other water management measures related to rainfall drainage systems and water supply networks are also employed to better utilize scarce water. Multiple government organizations that enforce several legal frameworks oversee long-term and acute water-related issues. Regional neighbors also face similar climatic conditions to Kuwait and suffer from water scarcity and associated food shortages. Water conservation and cultivating water-efficient crops have been identified as effective measures to overcome this issue. However, due to the small size and dry arid climate in Kuwait, its future is challenging. It must invest in modern, innovative, and effective solutions to preserve the sustainability of its freshwater resources.

Kuwait depends on desalination plants for the bulk of its freshwater needs. Brackish groundwater (salinity <5000 ppm) is used for irrigation. The current rates of water consumption are very high (473 l/c/d and 150 l/c/d for fresh and brackish water, respectively). The demands for both types of water are increasing at rapid rates. If these trends continue unchecked, by the year 2025, the demand of fresh and brackish water may reach 3036 Mm 3 /y and 280 Mm 3 /y, respectively. In such an eventuality, a large investment will be necessary in the near future to augment the desalination capacity of the country. The aquifers yielding the brackish water are already under great stress and will be stressed further if the withdrawal rates are further increased. Scaling down of the rising demands is, therefore, an urgent necessity. Various steps to achieve this objective in the near future have been proposed and discussed in this article.

International Journal of Water Resources Development, 2014

Saudi Arabia is facing a chronic water-shortage problem. Demand far exceeds the sustainable yield of both conventional and non-conventional water resources. The resulting demand -supply gap is being bridged through groundwater depletion. In this paper, demand -supply gaps for the coming 20 years are projected under three scenarios: optimistic, moderate and pessimistic. Future sustainable water yields are calculated and allocated to projected water demand in the domestic, industrial and agricultural sectors. The study shows that Saudi Arabia will not be able to bridge the demand -supply gap in the near future. Intensive water demand management measures are needed in all sectors to minimize future demand -supply gaps, especially focused on the largest water consumer: the agricultural sector.

Desalination and Water Treatment, 2012

Qatar has experienced rapid economic growth due to the discovery and production of fuel oil and natural gas (NG). The natural renewable water resources (rainfall and groundwater [GW]) are depleted; and are estimated as 71-m 3 /per year per capita in 2005. This is far below the water poverty line of 1,000-m 3 /yca. The GW withdrawal is excessive (compared to replenishment) and is used mainly for irrigation. A very small amount of GW is treated to become potable water and is distributed to consumers. The municipal potable water mainly contains (99%) desalted seawater (DW) and 1% GW. The consumption of DW and electric power (EP) is continuously rising due to the increase in both population and the standard of living. The population have been more than doubled from 2000 to 2010. The DW is produced in power plants generating both EP and DW, and is called Cogeneration Power Desalting Plants (CPDP). These CPDPs are using either: simple gas turbines (GT) cycle or GT combined with steam turbine (ST) to form a GT combined cycle (GTCC). A thermally driven multi-stage flash (MSF) desalting system is mainly used to desalt seawater. Large MSF units are operated in the CPDP to get their thermal energy (as steam) needs either from: (i) heat recovery steam generators coupled with GT or (ii) steam extracted or discharged from the ST of the GTCC. The CPDPs consume large amounts of fossil fuel (FF), mainly NG. The burning FF pollutes the environment by emitting the carbon dioxide (CO 2), carbon monoxides, and nitrogen oxides (NOx). The CO 2 and NOx are greenhouse gases causing global warming. Raising the efficiencies of EP and DW production can reduce their negative impact on the environment. The sustainability of water in Qatar is questionable: the extracted GW is several times its replenishment rate. The municipal water supply depends almost on desalting seawater by MSF, which is energy intensive and costly process. Deploying a more energy-efficient desalting system such as Seawater Reverse Osmosis system can save a lot of NG, the nation's main source of income. The use of treated wastewater (TWW) is limited to some agriculture and landscaping. The ratio of TWW to municipal water supply is low, about 25%. It is also essential to promote conservation measures for both water and power. This paper reviews the water profile in Qatar and recommends solutions to solve the growing water scarcity in Qatar.

Desalination, 2001

Salinity is one of the major problems that the coastal region of Bangladesh has been facing over the last couple of decades. Due to sea level rise, frequent natural disasters, changes of climate patterns and man-made alteration of natural settings, the situation is becoming more vulnerable day by day. It has also been observed th