Manuel Will
Since 2018 I am a Lecturer (Akademischer Rat) at the University of Tübingen in the Department of Early Prehistory and Quaternary Ecology.
From 2016-2018 I was an elected Research Fellow in Archaeology & Anthropology at Gonville & Caius College, University of Cambridge.
I finished my PhD in July 2016 at the University of Tübingen (Department of Early Prehistory and Quaternary Ecology) under the supervision of Prof. N. Conard PhD. The title of my dissertation was "Lithic technology and behavioral variability during the Middle Stone Age of southern Africa: Implications for the evolution and dispersal of early modern humans"
I have previously completed my MPhil in Human Evolutionary Studies at the University of Cambridge in October 2012 (supervisor: J. Stock). My thesis title was "Body size and leg length in early Homo revisited: spatiotemporal trends and taxonomic differences".
Supervisors: Prof. Nicholas Conard PhD and Dr. Jay Stock
From 2016-2018 I was an elected Research Fellow in Archaeology & Anthropology at Gonville & Caius College, University of Cambridge.
I finished my PhD in July 2016 at the University of Tübingen (Department of Early Prehistory and Quaternary Ecology) under the supervision of Prof. N. Conard PhD. The title of my dissertation was "Lithic technology and behavioral variability during the Middle Stone Age of southern Africa: Implications for the evolution and dispersal of early modern humans"
I have previously completed my MPhil in Human Evolutionary Studies at the University of Cambridge in October 2012 (supervisor: J. Stock). My thesis title was "Body size and leg length in early Homo revisited: spatiotemporal trends and taxonomic differences".
Supervisors: Prof. Nicholas Conard PhD and Dr. Jay Stock
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the cultural evolution of our species, southern Africa plays a secondary role in narratives regarding human biological origins.
Reasons for this are a limited and fragmentary fossil record from the Middle Stone Age (MSA), further complicated by a number
of human remains coming from contexts lacking chronostratigraphic information. Similar to the southern African MSA overall,
the rich archeological deposits of Sibudu stand in opposition to its scarce record of hominin fossils. Here, we report on three
human teeth (SIB-1, 2, 3) from securely stratified MSA deposits at Sibudu dating between > 77 and 64 ka. The teeth include two
lower deciduous molars (Ldm2) with heavy occlusal wear and one fragment.We focus on describing the find and archeological
context, followed by an initial assessment of the fossils and their contextualization within the African record. The juvenile teeth
derive from rich and well-stratified archeological deposits, associated with a Howiesons Poort industry at ~ 64 ka from PGS3
(SIB-3) and pre-Still Bay occupations in strata Casper and Danny at > 77 ka (SIB-1, 2). The latter constitute the oldest human
fossils from Sibudu. Metric and morphological analyses of the Ldm2s (SIB-2, 3) find a combination of archaic traits (e.g., midtrigonid
crest) and crown dimensions that overlap with ranges of both Pleistocene and recent Homo sapiens. These results match
with a population of Homo sapiens that lies chronologically between the earliest members of the species and recent humans.
the cultural evolution of our species, southern Africa plays a secondary role in narratives regarding human biological origins.
Reasons for this are a limited and fragmentary fossil record from the Middle Stone Age (MSA), further complicated by a number
of human remains coming from contexts lacking chronostratigraphic information. Similar to the southern African MSA overall,
the rich archeological deposits of Sibudu stand in opposition to its scarce record of hominin fossils. Here, we report on three
human teeth (SIB-1, 2, 3) from securely stratified MSA deposits at Sibudu dating between > 77 and 64 ka. The teeth include two
lower deciduous molars (Ldm2) with heavy occlusal wear and one fragment.We focus on describing the find and archeological
context, followed by an initial assessment of the fossils and their contextualization within the African record. The juvenile teeth
derive from rich and well-stratified archeological deposits, associated with a Howiesons Poort industry at ~ 64 ka from PGS3
(SIB-3) and pre-Still Bay occupations in strata Casper and Danny at > 77 ka (SIB-1, 2). The latter constitute the oldest human
fossils from Sibudu. Metric and morphological analyses of the Ldm2s (SIB-2, 3) find a combination of archaic traits (e.g., midtrigonid
crest) and crown dimensions that overlap with ranges of both Pleistocene and recent Homo sapiens. These results match
with a population of Homo sapiens that lies chronologically between the earliest members of the species and recent humans.
Here we use archaeological data from the Middle Stone Age (MSA) site of Sibudu (>80-50 ka) in South Africa as a perfect test case for examining the potentials and problems of applying models of cultural change to the Paleolithic. Sibudu is unusual in being rich in archaeological material, having good organic preservation, and providing an exceptionally high resolution stratigraphic sequence in its upper levels (~58 ka) with >20 layers deposited over only a few centuries. The archaeological remains within this sequence document abundant short-term cultural change among early Homo sapiens during the MSA.
This paper assesses several causal models to account for these quantitative changes – including demography, climate, environment, subsistence and socio-cultural factors. We are particularly interested in applying the framework of cultural transmission theory due to the unusually high resolution of archaeological data for this period, thereby examining the applicability of this approach to the Stone Age record more generally. Our conclusion highlights the potentials and problems of current theoretical models in the Paleolithic with an emphasis on the issues of scale, spatio-temporal resolution and the nature of archaeological data.
Here, we provide a long-term, inter-species and evolutionary perspective on the earliest evidence for coastal adaptations dating to the end of the Middle Pleistocene and Late Pleistocene (MIS 6-3). We performed a systematic review, directly comparing the behaviors of modern humans (MSA of Africa) contemporaneous with Neanderthals (MP of Europe), an approach which expands on previous studies of smaller scope. Our main aim was to assess whether both species were adapted to coasts, if their behaviors differed, and if so, to what extent. We achieved this by conducting a detailed literature research and applying the same criteria for each site. We thereby provide an objective and comparative assessment of the archaeological evidence, including subsistence, settlement systems, and lithic and non-lithic technologies. Based on this review, we assess similarities and differences in coastal adaptations between modern humans and Neanderthals, and discuss the wider evolutionary implications.
A total of 27 MSA and 31 MP sites provide credible evidence for the use of marine resources and coastal landscapes between MIS 6-3. Overall, our comparisons found more similarities than differences between the coastal adaptations of MSA modern humans and Neanderthals. The remaining disparities are all in degree, not kind. Among these gradual differences, modern humans consistently exploited a wider range of marine resources more intensively – shellfish in particular – indicating higher proportions in the diet of <i>Homo sapiens</i>. Accordingly, some MSA sites, but none from the MP, yielded true shell midden deposits. MSA shellfish-bearing sites are more often associated with large lithic assemblages, intense and repetitive occupations on coastal landscapes, and more evidence for perforated shells and other elements of complex material culture. The only categorical difference between the two species is the frequent production of shell tools on bivalves exclusively by Neanderthals. These multifaceted differences can best be explained by diverging adaptive behavioral strategies, with some populations of modern humans pursuing a subsistence and mobility system more strongly focused on longer-term residential settlements on coasts and their resources.
In both <i>Homo sapiens</i> and Neanderthals, coastal adaptations constitute a consistent behavioral signature for over ~100,000 years in several regions among independent populations. In the context of the general MSA and MP archaeological records, coastal adaptations are best conceived as an “add on” to previous subsistence and settlement patterns, complementing more frequently exploited inland resources and landscapes (“surf and turf”). Still, both species increased their dietary breadth and quality – with marine foods being particularly rich in brain-selective nutrients – and added options for occupation and range expansion, which may have ultimately contributed to higher cognitive capacities, dispersal abilities and behavioral flexibility. To what extent the gradual differences between the two species stimulated different evolutionary trajectories or translated into categorical disparities via threshold effects, is a complex question worthy of more attention.
In the past two decades, numerous excavations, research projects and outstanding finds made southern Africa the leading region for research on the MSA and the evolution of modern humans. Based on our own research from various sites (e.g. Sibudu; Hoedjiespunt) in this region, we summarize and critically assess the state of MSA studies in South Africa. We focus in particular on models regarding the early bio-cultural evolution of Homo sapiens – exemplified by discussions of early coastal adaptations – as well as the competing models for the trajectory of cultural evolution and its underlying causes. The currently prevalent “Synthetic Model” argues that the MSA is characterized by two short-lived periods of exceptional innovation and cultural complexity (the Still Bay and Howiesons Poort) which are preceded and followed by less behaviourally sophisticated phases, potentially due to demographic collapses. Combined with recent studies from key sites, however, our research raises doubt on the validity of this model, showing that notions of a clear cultural sequence across the entire southern African subcontinent with well-defined, short-term and largely homogeneous cultural-chronological units are too simplistic, as are models that see uniform cultural regression or dwindling populations after ~60 ka.
Based on recent high-resolution observations we argue that research is entering a phase in which a more complex and geographically variable record of the southern Africa MSA will come into clearer focus. From this basis, improved models of behavioural change and spatial-temporal variation will likely emerge to help examine the dynamics of cultural evolution during the MSA in this but also other regions of Africa.
In this paper we investigate taxonomic, spatial and temporal variation in two components of body size within the genus Homo: body mass and stature. We combine size estimates of hominin fossils from our own studies with other published data, resulting in the largest sample for a single study so far (n=319). The body size estimates cover roughly four million years (4.1 Mya – 11 ka) and derive from African, European and Asian specimens, including several genera and species of hominins. This data set allows for a detailed assessment of body size evolution within the genus Homo and relative to earlier hominins.
Analyses of the body size estimates demonstrate that: a) the origins of the genus Homo are characterized by a significant increase in body size compared to australopithecines and paranthropines, but also feature abundant spatial and temporal variation within an enlarged size range; b) members of Homo erectus/ergaster are marked by a diversification in body mass and stature rather than directional increase; c) a consistent and universal increase in body size is only established in Middle Pleistocene hominins (e.g. Sima de los Huesos, Atapuerca; Homo heidelbergensis), Neanderthals and modern humans after ca. 0.5 Mya; d) selection against smaller body mass and stature occurred in the late Early and Middle Pleistocene, and; e) there are no simple latitudinal trends in the variation of body size estimates within Middle and Late Pleistocene Homo in Europe. These results have implications for studies concerned with human dispersal and encephalization, and more generally for how we interpret the evolution and biology of our genus. In light of the above, rather than focusing exclusively on species means and unidirectional models, perspectives that emphasize spatio-temporal variability and phenotypic plasticity might be more fruitful frameworks for interpreting the evolution of body size in our genus.
central to interpretations of their biology. It is widely accepted that Homo ergaster possessed
increased body size compared with Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis, and that this change in
physique might have facilitated the dispersal of Homo out of Africa. The study of taxonomic
differences in body size, however, is problematic. Postcranial remains are rarely associated with
craniodental fossils, and taxonomic attributions frequently rest upon the size of skeletal
elements. Previous body size estimates have been based upon well-preserved specimens with a
more reliable species assessment. Since these samples are small (n<5) and disparate in space
and time, little is known about geographical and chronological variation in body size within
early Homo. We investigate temporal and spatial variation in body size among early Homo
between 2.4-1.5 Myr using a ‘taxon-free’ approach, considering evidence for size variation
ofisolated and fragmentary postcranial remains (n=39) from eastern and southern Africa as well
as Dmanisi. To render the size of disparate fossil elements comparable, we derived new
regression equations for common parameters of body size from a globally representative
sample of hunter-gatherers and applied them to postcranial measurements from the fossils.
The results demonstrate that pronounced body size increases within Africa take place only after
hominin populations were established at Dmanisi, suggesting that migrations into Eurasia were
not contingent on larger body sizes. The primary evidence for these marked changes in
physique among early Homo is based upon material from Koobi Fora after 1.7 Myr, indicating
regional size variation in Africa after the earliest dispersals to Eurasia. The evolution of larger
bodies and longer legs can thus no longer be assumed to be the main driving factor behind the
earliest expansions of our genus to Eurasia.
Thee details of each archaeological horizon vary, but the basic cultural signature remains constant throughout the deposits.The lithic assemblage is characterized by about 80% chipped quartz and roughly 20%silcrete and other raw materials. Thee lithic assemblage shows complete, bipolar and hard hammer, reduction sequences for the locally available quartz, but highly truncated reduction sequences with many isolated end-products for silcrete and the other raw materials which are clearly non-local. Shellfish exploitation is focused on the acquisition of granite limpets (Cymbula granatina) and black mussels (Choromytilus meridionalis) with other species present in far fewer numbers. While ostrich eggshell is plentiful, engraved or perforated pieces have not been observed. However, many pieces of ochre show clear signs of utilization.This robust analysis of lithic technology and the exploitation of marine resources by MSA hunter-gatherers of the West Coast of South Africa facilitates the comparison with other early MSA coastal sites such as Ysterfontein 1 and Pinnacle Point Cave 13BB."
We reconstructed activity patterns through an in-depth study of the lithic assemblages combining analyses of the reduction sequences, artifact attributes and quartz fracturing. These methods allow insights into raw material procurement, lithic reduction sequences, site use, mobility patterns, and foster comparison with other MSA coastal sites.
The basic features of the assemblages remain constant throughout the sequence. Quartz dominates silcrete and other raw materials by almost four to one. Flakes produced by various non-systematic core reduction strategies are the dominant blank type (>90%). Denticulates represent the most frequent tool form. The assemblages show complete, bipolar and hard hammer reduction sequences for the locally available quartz, but highly truncated reduction sequences with many isolated end-products for silcrete, a material with a minimum transport distance of 10-30 km. This pattern suggests "provisioning of individual" and anticipated coastal settlement shifts for shellfish exploitation. The simultaneous occurrence of flexible raw material use, anticipated long-distance transport, systematic gathering of shellfish and pigment use is probably the most important behavioral observation at the site. While the HDP1 lithic assemblages show a distinctive signal, the results enhance comparisons with early MSA coastal sites such as Ysterfontein and Pinnacle Point. In summary, HDP1 adds new facets to our knowledge about early coastal adaptations of Homo sapiens."
Here we present data suggesting that Nubian core reduction systems associated with late Pleistocene populations in North Africa – and potentially with early human ex-migrations from Africa to Arabia – also occur in southern Africa, but much later and with no clear connection to the North African occurrence. Our surveys at Uitspankraal 7 (UPK7) and excavations at Mertenhof, both situated in south-western South Africa and about 25 km apart, have yielded a total of 36 cores with all the hallmarks of Nubian technology. These necessary technological attributes include a steeply angled median distal ridge, an opposed striking platform, a triangular core shape and a prepared main striking platform (sensu Usik et al. 2013). The cores confirm either to type 1/2 or type 2 variants of the Nubian system and are manufactured on all principle raw materials. They are small relative to those from north-eastern African and Arabia, a difference driven largely by available raw materials, but generally fall in the lower end of the size spectrum of Nubian cores. At both UPK7 and Mertenhof, Nubian-like cores and the concomitant convergent flakes occur exclusively in assemblages of the early post-Howiesons Poort and can be age bracketed to 60-50 ka. These observations constitute the first demonstration of this core reduction system from the southern part of the African continent.
The timing and spatial distribution of Nubian cores in southern Africa implies convergence, rather than diffusion or dispersal. This interpretation is consistent with the absence of documented Nubian systems in any part of the intervening space between northern Africa and South Africa, and the fact that by 60 ka the Nubian had probably disappeared from its source area. Interpreting our data as including an instance of technological convergence on the Nubian core reduction system carries several implications. Foremost, the distribution of Nubian cores cannot always be assumed to reflect information sharing networks. In cases where similar lithic systems occur in the same restricted time interval in contiguous areas, information transmission with or without attendant population movement remains a relatively parsimonious explanation: the suggestion that the Arabian Nubian techno-complex was made by populations related to those in north-east Africa is reasonable, although it should be substantiated by more detailed quantitative comparisons of relevant lithic assemblages. Having said that, where assemblages are separated by considerable intervals of time and/or space, convergence cannot be precluded on the grounds of technological complexity. While lithic technologies can be a critical guide to human population flux under favorable circumstances, their utility in tracing early human dispersals at large spatial and temporal scales thus remains questionable.
• eine kompakte Übersicht verschiedener Methoden zur Analyse von Steinartefakten
• gut verständliche Erklärungen zur Vorgehensweise
• präzise Begriffserläuterungen und Definitionen
• eine kritische Auseinandersetzung mit Vor- und Nachteilen des jeweiligen methodischen Ansatzes
• weiterführende Literatur, falls eine Vertiefung in die Thematik bzw. in Teilaspekte erwünscht ist