Directory

Fernando Cajas | Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala - Academia.edu

Skip to main content

Fernando Cajas

Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala, Ingenieria, Cunoc, Faculty Member

Followers

24

Following

33

Mentions

333

Public Views

I am a guatemalan researcher on science, technology, mathematics and engineering learning (STEM), love swiming and dancing, work for a better Planet. Soy un investigador científico guatemalteco en aprendizaje de la ciencia, matemática, tecnología e ingeniería (STEM), me encanta nadar.

less

Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala

Mireya Hernández Padilla

José Ricardo Monge Lovato

Gonzalo Gutierrez

Jorge Luis Contreras Vidal

Universidad Central "Marta Abreu" de Las Villas

Interests

Uploads

Papers by Fernando Cajas

Investigacion en aprendizaje de la ciencia, la matematica y la tecnologia: fundamento para el desarrollo

Esta presentación describe algunos aspectos que deben considerarse al diseñar planes encaminados ... more Esta presentación describe algunos aspectos que deben considerarse al diseñar planes encaminados a mejorar la enseñanza y el aprendizaje de la ciencia, la matemática y la tecnología de una población. La pregunta fundamental que intento atacar es: ¿cual es la relación entre contenidos científicos, matemáticos y tecnológicos que deben ser generados para educación general y su aprendizaje? Se discute el papel de la investigación en didáctica de la ciencia y la tecnología así como en Matemática Educativa que puede iluminar la formación de planes de esta naturaleza. Se sugiere la construcción de planes pilotos que sirvan para recolectar información acerca de las condiciones en las cuales los estudiantes aprenden ideas importantes de ciencia, matemática y tecnología. Se utilizan datos empíricos provenientes de proyectos pilotos de Latinoamérica (Cajas, 1999b).

Los retos de las políticas de ciencia y tecnología en Guatemala

Revista Cubana de Educación Superior, Jan 4, 2015

RESUMEN En el presente trabajo se reflexiona sobre el papel de la ciencia y tecnología en países ... more RESUMEN En el presente trabajo se reflexiona sobre el papel de la ciencia y tecnología en países en desarrollo. Se recurre al estudio de un problema referido a las inundaciones urbanas en el Occidente de Guatemala. Asimismo se discute la importancia de generar políticas de desarrollo que consideren a las comunidades y se analiza el papel de la universidad pública en el desarrollo de políticas de ciencia y tecnología, no solo para la universidad, sino también para el desarrollo del país. Los temas tratados ratifican que el aprendizaje de la ciencia y la tecnología requiere tanta atención como su realización. PALABRAS CLAVE: aprendizaje, políticas de desarrollo, universidad pública.

La desarticulación matemática en la enseñanza de la ingeniería

Feglinin-Revista oficial de la Federación Global De Profesiones, III (22), 24-31

In Latin America, engineers are required to intervene on issues connected to sustainable developm... more In Latin America, engineers are required to intervene on issues connected to sustainable development, infrastructure and poverty. Engineering mathematics courses are seen as filters that truncate students further engineering studies, also a mathematical disarticulation between mathematics and their application in engineering sciences has been reported along with an unsuitable School Mathematics Discourse. However, educational reforms and curricular design in engineering schools keep focusing on the traditional vision, beginning with Basic Sciences courses but giving a blind eye to the global vision of engineering. A necessity arises, and invert the traditional order and start from professional engineering activities to determine the contents of the mathematics courses (and not backwards), with the goal of keeping mathematics relevant.

Elementos de un programa piloto hacia una mayor productividad de los agricultores de frutilla en Paraguay

Revista Científica OMNES, Nov 22, 2018

Elementos de un programa piloto hacia una mayor productividad de los agricultores de frutilla en Paraguay

Revista Científica OMNES, Nov 22, 2018

Science for All Americans: A Philosophical Discussion

Proceedings of the Third International History, …, 1995

Teaching science for understanding and applications

In the international arena as well as in the American context, current science educational reform... more In the international arena as well as in the American context, current science educational reform proposals are asking for the introduction of technology. However, technology has not had a real impact on the science curriculum. Rather, the long history of the lack of connection between technology and science in general education continues. This dissertation studies the role of technology, as

El tipo de matemáticas que deben ser enseñadas y aprendidas por los futuros ingenieros

El objetivo del grupo es reflexionar sobre la ensenanza de la matematica en escuelas de formacion... more El objetivo del grupo es reflexionar sobre la ensenanza de la matematica en escuelas de formacion de ingenieros. Se presentan parte de las discusiones que se generaron durante la presentacion en la Relme 30 en Monterrey, Mexico, enfocadas a la matematica que se ensena y la que debiera ensenarse en las escuelas de ingenieria.

Formación de ingenieros y técnicos desde la matemática educativa

El objetivo del grupo es reflexionar sobre la ensenanza de la matematica en escuelas de formacion... more El objetivo del grupo es reflexionar sobre la ensenanza de la matematica en escuelas de formacion de futuros profesionales: ingenieros y tecnicos, desde cinco grandes temas: 1) El tipo de matematicas que debe ser ensenada y aprendida, 2) El reconocimiento de la pluralidad de enfoques geopoliticos que se tienen sobre ?que es una escuela de ingenieria y una escuela tecnica? y ?que es una escuela de formacion tecnologica? 3) La relacion de las matematicas con las ciencias de la ingenieria y los contenidos tecnicos 4) El rol que juegan los profesionales en la transformacion del conocimiento matematico hacia un saber practico, y de que manera ese saber practico puede volverse al aula y 5) Las formas de modelizacion pertinentes en esos niveles.

Formación de profesionales desde la matemática educativa

El presente escrito muestra una sintesis sobre una serie de trabajos presentados en el grupo de d... more El presente escrito muestra una sintesis sobre una serie de trabajos presentados en el grupo de discusion donde se dialoga alrededor de la importancia de conocer las practicas de modelacion de los ingenieros en su actividad profesional y como el caracterizar estas practicas nos permite eventualmente identificar lo que deberia estar presente en el aula escolar y sobre todo el disenar actividades de aprendizaje para los ingenieros en formacion. La idea es continuar avanzando juntos en esta direccion y como grupo poder aportar conocimientos sobre las practicas ingenieriles en diversos contextos y su uso adecuado desde la formacion de profesionales.

Los retos de las políticas de ciencia y tecnología en Guatemala

The present work goes over the role of science and technology in developing countries. A study is... more The present work goes over the role of science and technology in developing countries. A study is carried out regarding urban flooding in Western Guatemala. Likewise, the paper debates on the importance of generating development policies that take communities into account, and analyzes the role of the public university in the development of science and technology policies, not only for the university, but also for the country’s development. The studied topics confirm that the learning of science and technology requires as much attention as its realization.

Alfabetización Científica y Tecnológica: Didáctica Del Conocimiento Tecnológico

SUMMARY This article studies the role of technology, as curricular content, in science literacy. ... more SUMMARY This article studies the role of technology, as curricular content, in science literacy. It describes a wide conception of literacy that includes knowing about science, mathematics and technology and their interactions focusing on the science or technology relationship. Using examples from control systems (electric circuits) and the design of structures (bridges), the article illustrates that there are technological concepts that are important for literacy. It also discusses the difficulties of introducing technology studies in general education.

Alfabetización científica y tecnológica: la transposición didáctica del conocimiento tecnológico

Enseñanza de las Ciencias. Revista de investigación y experiencias didácticas, 2001

This article studies the role of technology, as curricular content, in science literacy. It descr... more This article studies the role of technology, as curricular content, in science literacy. It describes a wide conception of literacy that includes knowing about science, mathematics and technology and their interactions focusing on the science or technology relationship. Using examples from control systems (electric circuits) and the design of structures (bridges), the article illustrates that there are technological concepts that are important for literacy. It also discusses the difficulties of introducing technology studies in general education.

Reformas en educación científica

Research in Technology Education: What are we Researching? A Response to Theodore Lewis

Journal of Technology Education, 2000

Lewis (1999) analyzed the role of research in technology education. He suggested that: "We have t... more Lewis (1999) analyzed the role of research in technology education. He suggested that: "We have to talk about research needs in a way that engenders ever more possibilities. Rather than boxing in the researchers, we must see ways to push the limits and explore new and different frontiers" (p. 52). Here I reflect on Lewis' recommendations. I concur with several ideas suggested by Lewis, and I propose that the discussion on research in technology education also needs to consider what students should actually learn after they complete their technology education programs. Lewis stated that the most important questions for research in technology education "probably have to do with challenges encountered by students as they try to learn the concepts and processes of the subject…" (1999, pp. 42-43, italics added). I agree, but I would add that an equally important question for research in technology education is what specific concepts and processes of the subject we are talking about. In making my arguments I will focus on three of the eight areas of research suggested by Lewis: (1) technological literacy, (2) misconceptions, and (3) integration. Technological Literacy I completely agree with Lewis (1999, p. 43) who suggested that from the perspective of the general public, there is some degree of consciousness on the need for technological literacy. I would add that this should not be the concern of the general public alone, but rather technological literacy should be the main concern of the field of technology education. According to Lewis, one approach to clarifying the meaning of technological literacy is to study how the term is used. Lewis cites Gagel (1995) who "employed phenomenological strategy, primarily heremeneutics (text analysis), to explore meanings that are ascribed to the notion of technological literacy…" (p. 44). Another approach mentioned by Lewis is to study how adults deal with technological decisions. Lewis cites Welty (1992) who conducted one study of adult behavior, attitudes, and knowledge about technological issues. Although ___________________________

Technology Education Research: Potential Directions

Journal of Technology Education, 2000

Current educational reform proposals recognize the importance of understanding technology and hav... more Current educational reform proposals recognize the importance of understanding technology and have identified certain technological abilities as goals for all students. Important examples are the Benchmarks for Science Literacy of Project 2061 of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS, 1993) and the Standards for Technological Literacy of the International Technology Education Association (ITEA, 2000) 1. In the international arena the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has also recognized the urgency of technology literacy throughout its Innovations in Science and Technology Education series. The above reform movements call for understanding concepts and principles of technology such as design, control, and systems and also some important ideas about technology in specific areas such as materials, energy, and communication (AAAS, 1990; ITEA, 2000). In doing so they are transforming the field of technology education, within a context of literacy, asking for a deeper understanding of the nature of technology. This transformation has important implications for any potential research agenda for technology education. Project 2061 of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) held a conference to consider what kind of research would enhance the goal of achieving universal technological literacy. Last December, thirty-five participants from science education, technology education, and cognitive science convened to discuss the role of research in technology education. Technology was discussed from a wide perspective, including the relationship between science and technology, the notion of design, control mechanisms, materials, energy, and communication. The overall goals of the conference were to raise consciousness on the needed research and to begin a discussion for a research agenda in technology education. The American Association for the Advancement of Science has long recognized the importance of technological studies in the education of all Americans.

Editorial Technology Education Research: Potential Directions

Assessing the Impacts of a Guatemalan University and U.S. University Partnership Aimed at Improving Water Quality and Availability to Rural Guatemalans

Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation, 2010

The science/technology interaction: Implications for science literacy

Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 2001

Science literacy includes understanding technology. This raises questions about the role of techn... more Science literacy includes understanding technology. This raises questions about the role of technology in science education as well as in general education. To explore these questions, this article begins with a brief history of technology education as it relates to science education and discusses how new conceptions of science and technological literacy are moving beyond the dichotomies that formerly characterized the relationship between science and technology education. It describes how Benchmarks for Science Literacy, the National Science Education Standards, and the Standards for Technological Literacy have been making a case for introducing technology studies into general education. Examples of specific technological concepts fundamental for science literacy are provided. Using one example from the design of structures, the article examines how understanding about design (i. e., understanding constraints, tradeoffs, and failures) is relevant to science literacy. This example also raises teaching and learning issues, including the extent to which technology-based activities can address scientific and technological concepts. The article also examines how research can provide guides for potential interactions between science and technology and concludes with reflections on the changes needed, such as the creation of curriculum models that establish fruitful interactions between science and technology education, for students to attain an understanding of technology.

The Role of Research in Improving Learning Technological Concepts and Skills: The Context of Technological Literacy

International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 2002

This article reviews the role of research in the current transformation of American technology ed... more This article reviews the role of research in the current transformation of American technology education. The article is relevant for both American and international audiences. For the American audience the article provides an international overview of the current status of technology education research as it relates to the concepts and skills identified in Standards for Technological Literacy (International Technology Education Association 2000) and the Benchmarks for Science Literacy (American Association for the Advancement of Science 1993). For the international audience it provides a description of the way in which technology education is being redefined in the United States and the kind of empirical evidence that is needed to improve the learning of specific technological concepts and skills identified for technological literacy. The article also gives the reader a first-hand description of the role of 'standards' in defining content and guiding research in technology education.

Investigacion en aprendizaje de la ciencia, la matematica y la tecnologia: fundamento para el desarrollo

Esta presentación describe algunos aspectos que deben considerarse al diseñar planes encaminados ... more Esta presentación describe algunos aspectos que deben considerarse al diseñar planes encaminados a mejorar la enseñanza y el aprendizaje de la ciencia, la matemática y la tecnología de una población. La pregunta fundamental que intento atacar es: ¿cual es la relación entre contenidos científicos, matemáticos y tecnológicos que deben ser generados para educación general y su aprendizaje? Se discute el papel de la investigación en didáctica de la ciencia y la tecnología así como en Matemática Educativa que puede iluminar la formación de planes de esta naturaleza. Se sugiere la construcción de planes pilotos que sirvan para recolectar información acerca de las condiciones en las cuales los estudiantes aprenden ideas importantes de ciencia, matemática y tecnología. Se utilizan datos empíricos provenientes de proyectos pilotos de Latinoamérica (Cajas, 1999b).

Los retos de las políticas de ciencia y tecnología en Guatemala

Revista Cubana de Educación Superior, Jan 4, 2015

RESUMEN En el presente trabajo se reflexiona sobre el papel de la ciencia y tecnología en países ... more RESUMEN En el presente trabajo se reflexiona sobre el papel de la ciencia y tecnología en países en desarrollo. Se recurre al estudio de un problema referido a las inundaciones urbanas en el Occidente de Guatemala. Asimismo se discute la importancia de generar políticas de desarrollo que consideren a las comunidades y se analiza el papel de la universidad pública en el desarrollo de políticas de ciencia y tecnología, no solo para la universidad, sino también para el desarrollo del país. Los temas tratados ratifican que el aprendizaje de la ciencia y la tecnología requiere tanta atención como su realización. PALABRAS CLAVE: aprendizaje, políticas de desarrollo, universidad pública.

La desarticulación matemática en la enseñanza de la ingeniería

Feglinin-Revista oficial de la Federación Global De Profesiones, III (22), 24-31

In Latin America, engineers are required to intervene on issues connected to sustainable developm... more In Latin America, engineers are required to intervene on issues connected to sustainable development, infrastructure and poverty. Engineering mathematics courses are seen as filters that truncate students further engineering studies, also a mathematical disarticulation between mathematics and their application in engineering sciences has been reported along with an unsuitable School Mathematics Discourse. However, educational reforms and curricular design in engineering schools keep focusing on the traditional vision, beginning with Basic Sciences courses but giving a blind eye to the global vision of engineering. A necessity arises, and invert the traditional order and start from professional engineering activities to determine the contents of the mathematics courses (and not backwards), with the goal of keeping mathematics relevant.

Elementos de un programa piloto hacia una mayor productividad de los agricultores de frutilla en Paraguay

Revista Científica OMNES, Nov 22, 2018

Elementos de un programa piloto hacia una mayor productividad de los agricultores de frutilla en Paraguay

Revista Científica OMNES, Nov 22, 2018

Science for All Americans: A Philosophical Discussion

Proceedings of the Third International History, …, 1995

Teaching science for understanding and applications

In the international arena as well as in the American context, current science educational reform... more In the international arena as well as in the American context, current science educational reform proposals are asking for the introduction of technology. However, technology has not had a real impact on the science curriculum. Rather, the long history of the lack of connection between technology and science in general education continues. This dissertation studies the role of technology, as

El tipo de matemáticas que deben ser enseñadas y aprendidas por los futuros ingenieros

El objetivo del grupo es reflexionar sobre la ensenanza de la matematica en escuelas de formacion... more El objetivo del grupo es reflexionar sobre la ensenanza de la matematica en escuelas de formacion de ingenieros. Se presentan parte de las discusiones que se generaron durante la presentacion en la Relme 30 en Monterrey, Mexico, enfocadas a la matematica que se ensena y la que debiera ensenarse en las escuelas de ingenieria.

Formación de ingenieros y técnicos desde la matemática educativa

El objetivo del grupo es reflexionar sobre la ensenanza de la matematica en escuelas de formacion... more El objetivo del grupo es reflexionar sobre la ensenanza de la matematica en escuelas de formacion de futuros profesionales: ingenieros y tecnicos, desde cinco grandes temas: 1) El tipo de matematicas que debe ser ensenada y aprendida, 2) El reconocimiento de la pluralidad de enfoques geopoliticos que se tienen sobre ?que es una escuela de ingenieria y una escuela tecnica? y ?que es una escuela de formacion tecnologica? 3) La relacion de las matematicas con las ciencias de la ingenieria y los contenidos tecnicos 4) El rol que juegan los profesionales en la transformacion del conocimiento matematico hacia un saber practico, y de que manera ese saber practico puede volverse al aula y 5) Las formas de modelizacion pertinentes en esos niveles.

Formación de profesionales desde la matemática educativa

El presente escrito muestra una sintesis sobre una serie de trabajos presentados en el grupo de d... more El presente escrito muestra una sintesis sobre una serie de trabajos presentados en el grupo de discusion donde se dialoga alrededor de la importancia de conocer las practicas de modelacion de los ingenieros en su actividad profesional y como el caracterizar estas practicas nos permite eventualmente identificar lo que deberia estar presente en el aula escolar y sobre todo el disenar actividades de aprendizaje para los ingenieros en formacion. La idea es continuar avanzando juntos en esta direccion y como grupo poder aportar conocimientos sobre las practicas ingenieriles en diversos contextos y su uso adecuado desde la formacion de profesionales.

Los retos de las políticas de ciencia y tecnología en Guatemala

The present work goes over the role of science and technology in developing countries. A study is... more The present work goes over the role of science and technology in developing countries. A study is carried out regarding urban flooding in Western Guatemala. Likewise, the paper debates on the importance of generating development policies that take communities into account, and analyzes the role of the public university in the development of science and technology policies, not only for the university, but also for the country’s development. The studied topics confirm that the learning of science and technology requires as much attention as its realization.

Alfabetización Científica y Tecnológica: Didáctica Del Conocimiento Tecnológico

SUMMARY This article studies the role of technology, as curricular content, in science literacy. ... more SUMMARY This article studies the role of technology, as curricular content, in science literacy. It describes a wide conception of literacy that includes knowing about science, mathematics and technology and their interactions focusing on the science or technology relationship. Using examples from control systems (electric circuits) and the design of structures (bridges), the article illustrates that there are technological concepts that are important for literacy. It also discusses the difficulties of introducing technology studies in general education.

Alfabetización científica y tecnológica: la transposición didáctica del conocimiento tecnológico

Enseñanza de las Ciencias. Revista de investigación y experiencias didácticas, 2001

This article studies the role of technology, as curricular content, in science literacy. It descr... more This article studies the role of technology, as curricular content, in science literacy. It describes a wide conception of literacy that includes knowing about science, mathematics and technology and their interactions focusing on the science or technology relationship. Using examples from control systems (electric circuits) and the design of structures (bridges), the article illustrates that there are technological concepts that are important for literacy. It also discusses the difficulties of introducing technology studies in general education.

Reformas en educación científica

Research in Technology Education: What are we Researching? A Response to Theodore Lewis

Journal of Technology Education, 2000

Lewis (1999) analyzed the role of research in technology education. He suggested that: "We have t... more Lewis (1999) analyzed the role of research in technology education. He suggested that: "We have to talk about research needs in a way that engenders ever more possibilities. Rather than boxing in the researchers, we must see ways to push the limits and explore new and different frontiers" (p. 52). Here I reflect on Lewis' recommendations. I concur with several ideas suggested by Lewis, and I propose that the discussion on research in technology education also needs to consider what students should actually learn after they complete their technology education programs. Lewis stated that the most important questions for research in technology education "probably have to do with challenges encountered by students as they try to learn the concepts and processes of the subject…" (1999, pp. 42-43, italics added). I agree, but I would add that an equally important question for research in technology education is what specific concepts and processes of the subject we are talking about. In making my arguments I will focus on three of the eight areas of research suggested by Lewis: (1) technological literacy, (2) misconceptions, and (3) integration. Technological Literacy I completely agree with Lewis (1999, p. 43) who suggested that from the perspective of the general public, there is some degree of consciousness on the need for technological literacy. I would add that this should not be the concern of the general public alone, but rather technological literacy should be the main concern of the field of technology education. According to Lewis, one approach to clarifying the meaning of technological literacy is to study how the term is used. Lewis cites Gagel (1995) who "employed phenomenological strategy, primarily heremeneutics (text analysis), to explore meanings that are ascribed to the notion of technological literacy…" (p. 44). Another approach mentioned by Lewis is to study how adults deal with technological decisions. Lewis cites Welty (1992) who conducted one study of adult behavior, attitudes, and knowledge about technological issues. Although ___________________________

Technology Education Research: Potential Directions

Journal of Technology Education, 2000

Current educational reform proposals recognize the importance of understanding technology and hav... more Current educational reform proposals recognize the importance of understanding technology and have identified certain technological abilities as goals for all students. Important examples are the Benchmarks for Science Literacy of Project 2061 of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS, 1993) and the Standards for Technological Literacy of the International Technology Education Association (ITEA, 2000) 1. In the international arena the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has also recognized the urgency of technology literacy throughout its Innovations in Science and Technology Education series. The above reform movements call for understanding concepts and principles of technology such as design, control, and systems and also some important ideas about technology in specific areas such as materials, energy, and communication (AAAS, 1990; ITEA, 2000). In doing so they are transforming the field of technology education, within a context of literacy, asking for a deeper understanding of the nature of technology. This transformation has important implications for any potential research agenda for technology education. Project 2061 of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) held a conference to consider what kind of research would enhance the goal of achieving universal technological literacy. Last December, thirty-five participants from science education, technology education, and cognitive science convened to discuss the role of research in technology education. Technology was discussed from a wide perspective, including the relationship between science and technology, the notion of design, control mechanisms, materials, energy, and communication. The overall goals of the conference were to raise consciousness on the needed research and to begin a discussion for a research agenda in technology education. The American Association for the Advancement of Science has long recognized the importance of technological studies in the education of all Americans.

Editorial Technology Education Research: Potential Directions

Assessing the Impacts of a Guatemalan University and U.S. University Partnership Aimed at Improving Water Quality and Availability to Rural Guatemalans

Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation, 2010

The science/technology interaction: Implications for science literacy

Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 2001

Science literacy includes understanding technology. This raises questions about the role of techn... more Science literacy includes understanding technology. This raises questions about the role of technology in science education as well as in general education. To explore these questions, this article begins with a brief history of technology education as it relates to science education and discusses how new conceptions of science and technological literacy are moving beyond the dichotomies that formerly characterized the relationship between science and technology education. It describes how Benchmarks for Science Literacy, the National Science Education Standards, and the Standards for Technological Literacy have been making a case for introducing technology studies into general education. Examples of specific technological concepts fundamental for science literacy are provided. Using one example from the design of structures, the article examines how understanding about design (i. e., understanding constraints, tradeoffs, and failures) is relevant to science literacy. This example also raises teaching and learning issues, including the extent to which technology-based activities can address scientific and technological concepts. The article also examines how research can provide guides for potential interactions between science and technology and concludes with reflections on the changes needed, such as the creation of curriculum models that establish fruitful interactions between science and technology education, for students to attain an understanding of technology.

The Role of Research in Improving Learning Technological Concepts and Skills: The Context of Technological Literacy

International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 2002

This article reviews the role of research in the current transformation of American technology ed... more This article reviews the role of research in the current transformation of American technology education. The article is relevant for both American and international audiences. For the American audience the article provides an international overview of the current status of technology education research as it relates to the concepts and skills identified in Standards for Technological Literacy (International Technology Education Association 2000) and the Benchmarks for Science Literacy (American Association for the Advancement of Science 1993). For the international audience it provides a description of the way in which technology education is being redefined in the United States and the kind of empirical evidence that is needed to improve the learning of specific technological concepts and skills identified for technological literacy. The article also gives the reader a first-hand description of the role of 'standards' in defining content and guiding research in technology education.