Journal Articles by Chitra Nagarajan
Feminist Dissent, 2018
This article examines the binary of culture/religion/tradition and modern/secular/foreign and its... more This article examines the binary of culture/religion/tradition and modern/secular/foreign and its impact on women's human rights struggles in particular in northern Nigeria. This binary is commonly perpetuated by state and non-state actors, including politicians, community leaders and religious leaders, who weaponise culture, religion and tradition to resist the struggle for gender equality. It highlights how progress around some concerns, such as rape of young girls, has occurred concurrently with attacks on other rights, particularly sexual and reproductive rights including abortion and sex outside marriage, and of those with non-normative sexual orientations, gender identities and gender expressions. This hardening of attitudes and narrowing of what is seen as permissible not only obscures the diversity of how people lived and thought in the past but is also far from the reality of how people live their lives presently. It further reflects the increased influence of religious fundamentalism and conservatism in northern Nigeria.
The following article considers the extent to which the Nigerian jihadi group, Jama'atu Ahlis Sun... more The following article considers the extent to which the Nigerian jihadi group, Jama'atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda'awati wal-Jihad (JAS), also known as Boko Haram, is transforming its model of governance from domination by violence and force to governance through civil administration and public support. Drawing on over four years of research and programming in northeast Nigeria, the authors consider three aspects of such a transformation: the development of institutions, the propagation of an ideology and programmes to win over the hearts and minds of the wider population, and the role assigned to women and girls. The article finds that JAS has established little in the way of a civilian administration in the areas that have come under its control. Likewise, the movement has apparently made no concerted effort to project a vision of a future society or concrete benefits of the envisaged cali-phate that would generate a level of public support. Moreover, the brutal treatment of women and girls belies any attempt by the movement to promote a positive vision of the role of women, even as wives and mothers. In this, JAS is seen to differ from a number of other jihadi movements that have relatively sophisticated approaches to generating popular support and recruiting members. The article goes on to suggest a number of reasons for JAS's failure to move towards a polity that is more consensual and less dependent on violence, as well as its implications for those who would seek to restrain the expansion and ideological reach of jihadist groups. It concludes by offering suggestions of how the government can seize the opportunity presented by this lack of a state-building strategy, in order to show the people of northeast Nigeria that it can offer a better alternative.
This essay lays out the historical and intellectual lineage of the idea behind the journal Femini... more This essay lays out the historical and intellectual lineage of the idea behind the journal Feminist Dissent. As the "Rushdie Affair " was both the backdrop and the catalyst for a group such as Women Against Fundamentalism, the current conjuncture characterized by an exponential expansion of fundamentalism, neo-liberal austerity, rollback of the rights of women and sexual minorities, and racist control of borders and migration has necessitated a different kind of analysis, one that is absent from academic and popular discourse at the moment. This essay is an attempt to propose a new way of looking at the intersection of gender and fundamentalism, and underscores the importance of highlighting dissent as a crucial feminist strategy.
Over a million people were killed in 1994 during Rwanda's genocide and war, with many women compe... more Over a million people were killed in 1994 during Rwanda's genocide and war, with many women compelled to 'offer' sex, raped, held in collective or individual sexual slavery and mutilated. An estimated 250 000 to 500 000 women still alive were raped between 1990 and 1994, 30 000 pregnancies resulted from rape and the 67% of survivors considered HIV positive continue to suffer the consequences of wartime sexual violence (Wells, 2004-2005). Countless women now live with serious illnesses, pain or injury, unable to provide for families. The level of trauma is severe, compounded by shame, exclusion, stigma, survivor's guilt and contested feelings towards the children of bad memories born of rape and as many perpetrators were neighbours who often live nearby. Despite commitment to the rights of women and recognition of the prevalence of rape during the genocide, the Rwandese government has been slow to offer legal redress, medical treatment and counselling and has not prioritized prosecution and punishment. Conviction rates are low. Reparations are not forthcoming. Neither the national courts nor the gacaca, have investigated and prosecuted these cases in a fitting manner. Although attention has been paid to sexual violence, defects in the drafting of statutory law and its implementation discourage reporting, investigation and prosecution. Recent procedural revisions dismiss very real fears around fair trial, public ridicule, and increased trauma. Difficulties in addressing the legacies and widespread nature of sexual violence are being overlooked as the government prioritizes the construction of a sense of nationhood and continuation of its own power over the needs of survivors. The result is that many women, infected with HIV or with other serious illnesses, are slowly dying without reparation, healthcare, counselling or seeing perpetrators brought to justice.
Research Papers by Chitra Nagarajan
Northeast Peace and Security Network, 2021
The people of northeast Nigeria have experienced three intersecting and interlocking crises. Long... more The people of northeast Nigeria have experienced three intersecting and interlocking crises. Long-standing under-development, weak governance, and inadequacy of public service provision and access had led to a region with some of the worst social development indicators, particularly for women and girls, in the nation. Over a decade of violent conflict has led to devastating and gendered impacts on access to education and healthcare, livelihoods, and mental health and psychological well-being as well as causing high numbers of deaths, injuries, disabilities, and displacement. Then, while official numbers of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infections and deaths continue to be low, the region has experienced significant economic and social impacts linked to the pandemic. Based on remote interviews conducted in November 2020, eight months after the first COVID-19 case in the country was confirmed (in Lagos on 27 February 2020), this study examines how the pandemic is affecting conflict dynamics in Adamawa, Borno, and Yobe states and uncovers the opportunities available to mitigate harmful impacts and build peace. The study addresses the following five research questions:
• How is the COVID-19 pandemic and related dynamics affecting relations within and between communities and how can social cohesion be built?
• How do the COVID-19 pandemic and related dynamics affect relations between communities and the state and how can trust, confidence, and good governance be improved?
• What information about COVID-19 is reaching communities and how can rumours and
misinformation be disrupted?
• How is the COVID-19 pandemic affecting gender and conflict dynamics and what entry-points exist around women, peace and security?
• What are the potential long-term effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and how may it affect conflict trajectories?
VAWG Helpdesk, 2020
Violence against women and girls (VAWG) was widespread in Nigeria before COVID-19 and there has b... more Violence against women and girls (VAWG) was widespread in Nigeria before COVID-19 and there has been a significant increase during the pandemic. This report presents the findings of interviews with women’s rights activists and government officials and data from VAWG services and that released by government ministries, departments and agencies (MDAs). It shows how COVID-19 has exposed the nature and scale of pre-existing challenges, lack of systems, and the extent to which VAWG is not prioritised.
Climate Security Expert Network, 2020
The majority of Mali's regions are currently affected by violent conflict. At the same time, Mali... more The majority of Mali's regions are currently affected by violent conflict. At the same time, Mali's climate is changing. It is already experiencing increasing temperatures and significant inter-annual and decadal rainfall variability, leading to repeated droughts, floods, strong winds, and bush fires. Conflict and climate change are combining to affect livelihoods and put resilience under strain in five ways:
1. Rent-seeking behaviour negatively affects environmental degradation and conflict dynamics
2. Conflict-insensitive climate and environmental action increases grievances
3. Migration is both a resilience strategy and source of tension
4. Conflicts over natural resources are likely to increase
5. Climate change and conflict both undermine livelihoods and social cohesion
British Council, 2020
The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and related government measures is having great ... more The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and related government measures is having great impact in North East Nigeria, a region already experiencing high levels of insecurity and violence, unequal gender power relations, and social exclusion. The paper examines what is already happening and potential trajectories. It starts by looking at the implications of COVID-19 and related policymaking for access to health and other services and their economic impacts on jobs, incomes, livelihoods and workload. It then considers impacts on social relations and conflict dynamics, trends in VAWG, the (risk of) other human rights violations, and dynamics around decision making and communications. It ends with conclusions and recommendations. It is shared publicly to help others to adapt programming to be conflict sensitive, gender- transformative, mitigate violence, and build peace.
Climate Security Expert Network, 2020
The majority of Mali's regions are currently affected by violent conflict. At the same time, Mali... more The majority of Mali's regions are currently affected by violent conflict. At the same time, Mali's climate is changing. It is already experiencing increasing temperatures and significant inter-annual and decadal rainfall variability, leading to repeated droughts, floods, strong winds, and bush fires. Conflict and climate change are combining to affect livelihoods and put resilience under strain in five ways:
1. Rent-seeking behaviour negatively affects environmental degradation and conflict dynamics
2. Conflict-insensitive climate and environmental action increases grievances
3. Migration is both a resilience strategy and source of tension
4. Conflicts over natural resources are likely to increase
5. Climate change and conflict both undermine livelihoods and social cohesion
2019 marked ten years of violent conflict in northeast Nigeria. As in other contexts around the g... more 2019 marked ten years of violent conflict in northeast Nigeria. As in other contexts around the globe, community militias formed to fill gaps left by state security actors and fight against armed opposition groups. This report presents research on community militias, offers potential future trajectories for community militia groups, and gives recommendations to address the opportunities and challenges posed by these groups and how to improve their engagement with civilians.
Analysis of Violence and Insecurity in Zamfara
Zamfara state in northwest Nigeria has seen high levels of violent conflict yet conflict dynamics... more Zamfara state in northwest Nigeria has seen high levels of violent conflict yet conflict dynamics are little studied and understood. This analysis fills this gap and answers the following six questions, integrating analysis on age, gender and disability throughout:
1. What are the root causes of violence and insecurity? What are the key grievances held by different groups and how do they manifest in violent and non-violent ways?
2. What is the impact of violence and security on people (differentiated according to age, disability and gender)?
3. What are the gender dynamics around conflict and how do gender norms and realities drive violence and/ or peace?
4. What are the factors (including government, security force and community action) bringing people together and/ or promoting peace and stability?
5. Who are the key actors with influence, means and motivations to mobilise groups and resources into collective action for peace or for violence and what are links between them?
6. What are the potential trajectories, both positive and negative, around peace and security?
This research report investigate gender relations and implications for peace and conflict in Adam... more This research report investigate gender relations and implications for peace and conflict in Adamawa State in northeast Nigeria. It starts by highlighting key conflict and security dynamics. It then outlines the main gender dynamics. It next examines policies and programmes implemented by government and non-government actors, outlining their main results, challenges and lessons. It ends with programming and policy recommendations.
British Council, 2019
This research report investigate gender relations and implications for peace and conflict in Born... more This research report investigate gender relations and implications for peace and conflict in Borno State in northeast Nigeria. It starts by highlighting key conflict and security dynamics. It then outlines the main gender dynamics. It next examines policies and programmes implemented by government and non-government actors, outlining their main results, challenges and lessons. It ends with programming and policy recommendations.
British Council, 2019
This research report investigate gender relations and implications for peace and conflict in Born... more This research report investigate gender relations and implications for peace and conflict in Borno State in northeast Nigeria. It starts by highlighting key conflict and security dynamics. It then outlines the main gender dynamics. It next examines policies and programmes implemented by government and non-government actors, outlining their main results, challenges and lessons. It ends with programming and policy recommendations.
Mercy Corps, 2019
Farmer-pastoralist conflict in Nigeria has attracted increased media attention both locally and i... more Farmer-pastoralist conflict in Nigeria has attracted increased media attention both locally and internationally, though its main actors, causes, and consequences are often the source of speculation and rumors. This lack of understanding of conflict dynamics is largely driven by limited evidence on pastoralist groups and practices, particularly as gathered directly from pastoralists themselves. This study develops a deeper understanding of the changing dynamics among pastoralist groups, relationships between farmers and different pastoralist groups, and the ways in which these complex dynamics and relationships affect and are affected by conflict.
Mercy Corps, 2019
Farmer-pastoralist conflict in Nigeria has attracted increased media attention both locally and i... more Farmer-pastoralist conflict in Nigeria has attracted increased media attention both locally and internationally, though its main actors, causes, and consequences are often the source of speculation and rumors. This lack of understanding of conflict dynamics is largely driven by limited evidence on pastoralist groups and practices, particularly as gathered directly from pastoralists themselves. This study develops a deeper understanding of the changing dynamics among pastoralist groups, relationships between farmers and different pastoralist groups, and the ways in which these complex dynamics and relationships affect and are affected by conflict.
The people of Lake Chad are caught in a conflict trap. Violent conflict between state security fo... more The people of Lake Chad are caught in a conflict trap. Violent conflict between state security forces and armed opposition groups, poor governance, endemic corruption, serious environmental mismanagement and poverty have ruined the lives of local people. Contrary to popular belief, the lake is not shrinking. That is not to say that Lake Chad is not affected by climate change. On the contrary, climate change is having profound adverse impacts on the conflict, intensifying existing dynamics and creating new risks. But an alleged shrinking of the lake is not the problem. However, high levels of rainfall and wide temperature variability are undermining people’s lives and livelihoods. Temperatures in the region are rising one and a half times faster than the global average. And climate projections predict that weather conditions will only become more extreme and more unpredictable. In the case of Lake Chad, this is mainly playing out in the changing size of the northern pool of the lake and the increasing variability in the timing and amount of rainfall. The resulting uncertainty means that those who depend on the lake no longer know what to plant and when, and when to switch from one livelihood to another. Communities in this region are thus vulnerable to both the impacts of climate change and the ongoing conflict—a pincer movement of forces which creates its own feedback loop. Years of conflict, poverty and persistent human rights violations from both governments and armed opposition groups have fragmented social bonds among families, among generations, among ethnic groups and between displaced people and host communities, making it harder for people to cope with and adapt to climate impacts than in the past. Meanwhile, climate change is aggravating the political and economic conditions that gave rise to the violence in the first place, undermining efforts to break the conflict trap. While the situation varies significantly between and within countries, the region as a whole faces four climate-conflict risks.The first risk is the dynamics of ongoing conflict that undermine people’s ability to deal with the consequences of an increasingly variable climate. The adaptive capacity of communities is being undermined by the large- scale displacement of people, restrictions to people’s movement as a result of the conflict and weaker social cohesion after years of violence.The second risk is the challenge of increased competition for natural resources. The combination of large numbers of displaced people, restricted access to resources and diminishing land availability and quality has led to competition over natural resources in some locations. The mixture of climate and conflict challenges has disrupted previous governance and restitution measures, which now either no longer exist or are too weak to defuse conflicts. The third risk is the ongoing challenge of recruitment by armed opposition groups. This takes place in the context of stark social and economic inequality, perceived lack of state legitimacy, increasingly vulnerable livelihoods and the lure of financial incentives offered to potential recruits. Climate change compounds this risk as it undermines already fragile economies and livelihoods. Finally,the fourth risk is heavy-handed military responses to the violence that can themselves undermine communities’ resilience and their ability to adapt to climate change. Military measures taken by the region’s governments in response to the crisis have not addressed the root causes of the crisis. In fact, it has at times had the opposite effect, undermining livelihoods and climate change adaptation potential through blanket restrictions of access to certain areas as well as damaging the social contract through human rights abuses and perceived impunity. In short, climate change and conflict dynamics interact in a vicious circle where climate change impacts feed additional pressures and tensions while conflict undermines communities’ abilities to cope and adapt. Therefore, a core conclusion of this assessment is that, if the region is to break free of the conflict trap, we must tackle the impacts of climate change as part of peacebuilding efforts.
The conflict in Northeast Nigeria has evolved in complexity and intensity since 2009, now extendi... more The conflict in Northeast Nigeria has evolved in complexity and intensity since 2009, now extending beyond the country’s borders into the Lake Chad Basin. While many associated with armed opposition groups (AOGs) have done so against their will, these groups have demonstrated the ability to mobilize support and offer a sense of belonging, purpose, and community. This study contributes to understanding the relationship between empowerment and radicalization through interviews with young people who were ideologically aligned with AOGs in northeast Nigeria. Integrating analyses of gender, age and power dynamics throughout, it traces their journeys to association, their experiences while in the groups, journeys to disassociation and reintegration.
As the violence in northeast Nigeria continues into its tenth year, communities have been mobiliz... more As the violence in northeast Nigeria continues into its tenth year, communities have been mobilizing to augment Nigerian state responses. These groups, known as the yan gora (Civilian Joint Task Force – CJTF), yan banga (vigilantes) and kungiyar maharba (hunters) have played important roles in protecting communities and pushing back against opposition groups. In the course of these activities, these groups have also caused civilian harm. This study aims to better understand civilian perspectives around the dynamics associated with the yan gora in Maiduguri and explore potential areas to mitigate civilian harm and advance civilian protection. Civilians credit the CJTF for bringing back some stability and safety to Borno. They believe the group is proactive in investigating reports received from community members, sharing information with civilians, and serving as a bridge between communities and security forces. The CJTF also patrol communities, conduct joint patrols alongside the military, perform security scans and body searches, and run checkpoints. They have assisted civilians to safety, enabling them to securely pursue livelihoods such as farming, and played a key role in resolving disputes. However, all civilian interviewees also pointed to concrete ways some members harm civilians. Members have been involved in assaulting and killing those thought to be associated with armed groups. They restrict movement outside IDP camps and use their positions of power for sexual exploitation and abuse. They intimidate civilians, employ punitive justice measures to settle personal scores, trade drugs, and have been implicated in the commission of extortion and theft, including the diversion of humanitarian aid. Civilians felt that opportunities for redress for harm do not exist. Every civilian interviewed was concerned for the future. In particular, civilians shared concerns over: 1) the increased politicization and mobilization of the group associated with the 2019 elections; 2) that the group’s involvement with politicians was diluting their focus on protection; 3) the group would become increasingly involved in criminality and gangs; and 4) the group derailing processes of disarmament, demobilisation, reintegration, and rehabilitation; 5) tensions within the CJTF, or between CJTF and vigilante and/ or hunters, would develop into a new phase of the conflict.
Climate change increasingly threatens the stability of states and societies. In the context of gl... more Climate change increasingly threatens the stability of states and societies. In the context of global security, it is best understood as a ‘threat multiplier’ that interacts with and compounds existing risks and pressures. When climate change converges and interacts with other environmental, economic, social, and political shocks and pressures, it can increase the likelihood of instability or conflict. This threat is particularly virulent in fragile and conflict-affected situations where governments and societal institutions already struggle to achieve security and equitable development. At the same time, conflicts and fragility often contribute to environmental degradation and undermine the ability to adapt to climate change, thus creating a vicious circle of increasing vulnerability and fragility. The complex and systemic risks that arise out of the interaction between climate change and other environmental, economic, social, and political pressures are what this profile calls climate-fragility risks.
This Climate-Fragility profile is envisaged as a first component of a Climate-Fragility Risk Assessment process – a process for actors working in contexts affected by climate and fragility risks to understand the linked nature of these risks and plan, design, implement and evaluate programmes to respond positively to these risks. It summarizes the key challenges the Lake Chad region is experiencing as a consequence of the interplay between climate change and fragility. It also provides an overview of national and sub-national policies and processes, programmes and projects that are relevant for addressing climate-fragility risks.
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Journal Articles by Chitra Nagarajan
Research Papers by Chitra Nagarajan
• How is the COVID-19 pandemic and related dynamics affecting relations within and between communities and how can social cohesion be built?
• How do the COVID-19 pandemic and related dynamics affect relations between communities and the state and how can trust, confidence, and good governance be improved?
• What information about COVID-19 is reaching communities and how can rumours and
misinformation be disrupted?
• How is the COVID-19 pandemic affecting gender and conflict dynamics and what entry-points exist around women, peace and security?
• What are the potential long-term effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and how may it affect conflict trajectories?
1. Rent-seeking behaviour negatively affects environmental degradation and conflict dynamics
2. Conflict-insensitive climate and environmental action increases grievances
3. Migration is both a resilience strategy and source of tension
4. Conflicts over natural resources are likely to increase
5. Climate change and conflict both undermine livelihoods and social cohesion
1. Rent-seeking behaviour negatively affects environmental degradation and conflict dynamics
2. Conflict-insensitive climate and environmental action increases grievances
3. Migration is both a resilience strategy and source of tension
4. Conflicts over natural resources are likely to increase
5. Climate change and conflict both undermine livelihoods and social cohesion
1. What are the root causes of violence and insecurity? What are the key grievances held by different groups and how do they manifest in violent and non-violent ways?
2. What is the impact of violence and security on people (differentiated according to age, disability and gender)?
3. What are the gender dynamics around conflict and how do gender norms and realities drive violence and/ or peace?
4. What are the factors (including government, security force and community action) bringing people together and/ or promoting peace and stability?
5. Who are the key actors with influence, means and motivations to mobilise groups and resources into collective action for peace or for violence and what are links between them?
6. What are the potential trajectories, both positive and negative, around peace and security?
This Climate-Fragility profile is envisaged as a first component of a Climate-Fragility Risk Assessment process – a process for actors working in contexts affected by climate and fragility risks to understand the linked nature of these risks and plan, design, implement and evaluate programmes to respond positively to these risks. It summarizes the key challenges the Lake Chad region is experiencing as a consequence of the interplay between climate change and fragility. It also provides an overview of national and sub-national policies and processes, programmes and projects that are relevant for addressing climate-fragility risks.
• How is the COVID-19 pandemic and related dynamics affecting relations within and between communities and how can social cohesion be built?
• How do the COVID-19 pandemic and related dynamics affect relations between communities and the state and how can trust, confidence, and good governance be improved?
• What information about COVID-19 is reaching communities and how can rumours and
misinformation be disrupted?
• How is the COVID-19 pandemic affecting gender and conflict dynamics and what entry-points exist around women, peace and security?
• What are the potential long-term effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and how may it affect conflict trajectories?
1. Rent-seeking behaviour negatively affects environmental degradation and conflict dynamics
2. Conflict-insensitive climate and environmental action increases grievances
3. Migration is both a resilience strategy and source of tension
4. Conflicts over natural resources are likely to increase
5. Climate change and conflict both undermine livelihoods and social cohesion
1. Rent-seeking behaviour negatively affects environmental degradation and conflict dynamics
2. Conflict-insensitive climate and environmental action increases grievances
3. Migration is both a resilience strategy and source of tension
4. Conflicts over natural resources are likely to increase
5. Climate change and conflict both undermine livelihoods and social cohesion
1. What are the root causes of violence and insecurity? What are the key grievances held by different groups and how do they manifest in violent and non-violent ways?
2. What is the impact of violence and security on people (differentiated according to age, disability and gender)?
3. What are the gender dynamics around conflict and how do gender norms and realities drive violence and/ or peace?
4. What are the factors (including government, security force and community action) bringing people together and/ or promoting peace and stability?
5. Who are the key actors with influence, means and motivations to mobilise groups and resources into collective action for peace or for violence and what are links between them?
6. What are the potential trajectories, both positive and negative, around peace and security?
This Climate-Fragility profile is envisaged as a first component of a Climate-Fragility Risk Assessment process – a process for actors working in contexts affected by climate and fragility risks to understand the linked nature of these risks and plan, design, implement and evaluate programmes to respond positively to these risks. It summarizes the key challenges the Lake Chad region is experiencing as a consequence of the interplay between climate change and fragility. It also provides an overview of national and sub-national policies and processes, programmes and projects that are relevant for addressing climate-fragility risks.