Lingua sánscrita

Sánscrito; 'संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam'
Falado en:	Sur de Asia
Rexións:	A India e outras áreas da Asia Meridional, partes do Sueste da Asia
Total de falantes:	Non existen falantes nativos de sánscrito.
Familia:	Indoeuropea; Indoaria; Sánscrito
Status oficial
Lingua oficial de:	India (unha das linguas oficiais)
Códigos de lingua
ISO 639-1:	sa
ISO 639-2:	san
ISO 639-3:	san
Mapa
Status

Este artigo amosa letras indias. Sen o soporte axeitado, o texto pode mostrar símbolos sen sentido, coma caixas, marcas e outros.

O sánscrito^[7] (saṃskr̥tam / संस्कृतम) é unha lingua indoeuropea, da familia indoirania, outrora falada no subcontinente indio. En especial, é a lingua dos textos relixiosos hindús e, neste senso, segue a ser utilizada, ao xeito do latín nos séculos pasados en Occidente, como lingua de culto, cultural e vehicular (un censo de 1981 indica que habería aínda cerca de 6100 falantes; en 1961 aproximadamente 194400 persoas dicían que o empregaban como lingua secundaria). É ademais unha das vinte e dúas linguas oficias da India. O sánscrito é unha lingua altamente flexiva e moi arcaizante, cuxo estudo é fundamental no marco da lingüística comparada.

Historia

O termo sánscrito designa máis un conxunto de linguas saídas dunha lingua nai estendida no tempo e no espazo ca unha lingua única. O seu nome, saṃskr̥tam, que significa "rematado" (véxase máis abaixo), é bastante recente; a lingua durante séculos foi chamada simplemente vāc ou śabda, « a palabra, a lingua », pois o sánscrito era sentido como a única lingua posíbel; algunhas designacións metafóricas, como gīrvāṇabhāṣā, «lingua dos deuses », remarcan ben o seu carácter relixioso.

O primeiro senso de sánscrito é o de "indoario antigo", lingua nai que está na orixe de multitude de dialectos, e lingua irmá do iranio antigo (ou avéstico) co que está moi relacionado. De acordo con documentos atopados no país dos hititas e redactados nesta outra lingua indoeuropea, que incluían algúns nomes indoiranios, é posíbel determinar que unha forma do indoiranio era falada no século XIV a.C.. A forma máis antiga de sánscrito testemuñada de maneira máis tanxíbel é chamado védico: é a lingua na que están redactados os Vedas, entre os cales está o R̥g Veda ou « Veda dos himnos (r̥g-) », o máis antigo conxunto de textos do hinduísmo. Porén é moi difícil datar o R̥g Veda en si, e, xa que logo, o comezo da historia real da lingua védica: os textos sagrados, en efecto, eran ante todo recitados e aprendidos de memoria (aínda o son agora) e a súa fixación por escrito é relativamente recente. Ademais, a súa composición prolóngase varios séculos. Algúns supoñen que os textos máis antigos remontan a mediados do século II. Esta lingua arcaica e pouco normativizada é unha das máis próximas ao indoeuropeo e móstrase preciosa para a lingüística comparada. A título indicativo, pódese indicar as principais diferenzas entre o sánscrito védico e o sánscrito clásico (véxase máis abaixo esta noción de clásico):

numerosas formas paralelas e irregularidades, que o sánscrito clásico ha nivelar;
flexión nominal e pronominal máis desenvolvida;
máis formas de participios e xerundios;
utilización frecuente dun subxuntivo do que carece o sánscrito clásico;
doce formas de infinitivo, contra unha do clásico;
presenza dun acento de altura;
regras de sandhi (véxase máis abaixo) menos obrigatorias etc.

Unha forma tardía do védico, que xa evolucionou (nótase a desaparición do subxuntivo, por exemplo), conforma o sánscrito preclásico, usado nos arredores do século V ou IV a.C. É este sánscrito o que Pāṇini, sen dúbida o primeiro gramático da antigüidade (aínda que a súa visión estruturalista só pode ser o froito dunha herdanza máis antiga), describe fonolóxica e gramaticalmente nunha obra dunha precisión e dun rigor formal sen igual ata o desenvolvemento da lingüística moderna, ben máis tarde. Este dedícase a describir no seu tratado, o Aṣṭādhyāyī, a lingua que el fala e subliña as fórmulas que considera propias dos himnos védicos, sen dicir realmente que son arcaicas. A lingua comeza a se normalizar.

No século III d.C., os primeiros prácritos (ou prākr̥ta, «[ingua] ordinaria ») aparecen testemuñados, en especial grazas ás inscricións de Ashoka. Estas linguas así designadas correspóndense a dialectos menos "nobres" que o sánscrito, é dicir, linguas vulgares e vernáculas de uso cotián que, rapidamente, se separan unha das outras e dan orixe á multitude de linguas indoarias presentes no subcontinente indio. Todas saídas do antigo indoario, elas coñecen cada unha unha evolución e un destino diferentes. É de tales prácritos de onde proveñen, entre outras, as linguas modernas como o hindī, o pañjābī, ou mesmo o bangālī. Estas linguas son «vulgares» do mesmo xeito que o latín vulgar, é dicir « faladas polo pobo »; o seu estatuto de idiomas vernáculos vivos, de linguas consideradas inferiores polo tanto, explica por que hai que esperar cando menos ao século XIX para que a literatura en linguas modernas suplante finalmente á escrita en sánscrito.

Ademais das inscricións de Ashoka, numerosas citas en prácritos están tamén testemuñadas en textos sánscritos, especialmente no teatro, onde as personaxes de rango inferior se expresan xeralmente en lingua vernácula. Estes testemuños, porén, son esencialmente literarios, e non poden ser tomados como totalmente reais. Pódese establecer unha analoxía co «patois» usado en certas obras de Molière, como Dom Juan, que serven para representar unha fala popular; o que aí aparece non pode ser tomado como unha atestación real das linguas vernáculas francesas da súa época, pero son susceptíbeis, mutatis mutandis, de nos aprender algo acerca destas linguas. A literatura prácrita está porén representada de maneira independente, pero a miúdo enmascarada polo sánscrito clásico. Un dos prácritos, o pāḷi, coñece un destino diferente: volto el tamén lingua sagrada, a do budismo teravada, non evoluciona case nada e emprégase tal cal na liturxia e nas exéxeses ata os nosos días. Finalmente, o canon jain, redactado nun prácrito chamado ardhamāgadhī, ofrece numerosos testemuños, aínda que outra volta literarios, dunha das linguas vulgares realmente faladas na antigüidade india.

É nos comentarios que Patañjali fai da gramática de Pāṇini (na súa obra chamada Mahābhāṣya), no século II a.C., onde aparecen as primeiras críticas: o comentarista proba que o sánscrito é aínda unha lingua viva, pero salpicada de formas dialectais; é recoñecida, pois, a existencia dos prácritos e rexeitada a utilización de formas vulgares; a noción de norma gramatical aparece máis fortemente, e é a partir deste momento que o sánscrito vai ser fixado para devir o sánscrito clásico, por fin designado nos textos por medio do vocábulo saṃskr̥ta (o cal non é porén empregado por Patañjali), propiamente « rematado », « perfectamente preparado » (dise tamén da comida). A lingua, tras a era cristiá, deixa de ser falada de forma natural: está perfectamente descrita pola gramática e xa non evoluciona máis. É unha lingua cultural e relixiosa, sen vínculo directo coas linguas vivas, usada a miúdo como lingua franca e como lingua literaria (mesmo polos pobos que non falaban unha lingua saída do antigo indio, como os falantes de linguas dravídicas, ata que as linguas neoindias xurdidas dos prácritos, ao redor do século XIV d.C., comezan realmente a se impoñer na escrita para, no século XIX d.C., suplantar ao sánscrito na produción literaria. É notábel que o tamiḻ, lingua dravídica sen relación de filiación co sánscrito, fóra dunha cultura tamén moi antiga, estivo en competencia co sánscrito moito antes, desde os primeiros séculos da nosa era.

A historia do sánscrito pódese resumir así:

o antigo indio, antecesor de todas as linguas indoarias, está representado sobre todo polo védico, logo sánscrito clásico que, ao se fixar, abandona o seu estatuto de lingua viva para volverse un idioma literario e inmutábel;
seguindo a evolución, o antigo indio dá orixe a unha multitude de linguas - o indio medio - denominadas prácritos, entre eles o pāḷi, que deixa de evolucionar;
finalmente, o indio medio evoluciona ao neo-indio, é dicir, ás linguas vivas modernas, como o hindī ou o bangālī.

De tal sorte que todas as linguas neo-indias derivan do sánscrito.

As escrituras do sánscrito

Tendo unha tradición oral como a que ten, o hinduísmo non precisou fixar os seus textos. Só tardiamente se xeneraliza o emprego do brāhmī nun primeiro momento (alfasilabario usado para os editos de Ashoka) e despois da multitude de escrituras que del derivan, primeiro para os textos profanos, logo para os sagrados. Cada rexión da India utiliza a escritura que lle serve para notar a súa propia lingua para escribir textos sánscritos; de tal sorte, o sánscrito non ten escritura propia e, sobre todo, pode ser notado por diferentes alfasilabarios, que deben, polo tanto, ser capaces de representaren certos fonemas que normalmente non empregarían. Pódese dar un exemplo desta flexibilidade de uso das escrituras indias cunha mesma frase sánscrita notada en varias grafías:

Que Śiva abenzoe aos amantes da lingua dos deuses. (Kālidāsa)

Son os colonos ingleses os que, durante o seu dominio, impuxeron unha destas escrituras, a devanágari, que tamén xurdiu da brāhmī. Hoxe en día o sánscrito é escrito maioritariamente en devanágari tanto na India como nas edicións occidentais.

Ademais, ao se transmitiren polo budismo, termos sánscritos foron adaptados ao chinés e logo ao xaponés, cuxas escrituras logográficas reclaman a creación de caracteres fonéticos destinados a este uso ou a utulización de caracteres independentemente do seu sentido; así, o termo sánscrito bodhisattva é notado 菩提薩埵, que se lía probabelmentebu-dej-sat-thwa en chinés medio (hoxe pútísàduǒ, abreviado en 菩薩 púsà). Destes caracteres so 提 tí, « tirar », e 埵 duǒ, « terra compacta », teñen significado, que é deixado de lado no composto en beneficio do son, mentres que 菩 e 薩 nunca aparecen fóra desta transcrición e non teñen ningún significado á parte.

Finalmente, o X Congreso dos Orientalistas fixa, en 1894 en Xenebra, unha transcrición latina que, hoxe, é a única utilizada nas obras didácticas occidentais. É esta mesma transcrición a que, lixeiramente aumentada, permite tamén transcribir todas as outras linguas indias, sexan ou non indoarias,, por medio dos mesmos símbolos. Esta transcrición descríbese en detalle en trascrición das linguas indias.

Traducións ao galego

O Pañcatantra foi a primeira tradución directa do sánscrito ao galego.^[8]

Características principais

Fonoloxía

Ver Sánscrito (fonoloxía)

Morfoloxía

Ver Sánscrito (morfoloxía)

Notas

↑ McCartney, Patrick (10 de maio de 2020). "Searching for Sanskrit Speakers in the Indian Census". The Wire. Consultado o 24 de novembro de 2020. Quote: "What this data tells us is that it is very difficult to believe the notion that Jhiri is a “Sanskrit village” where everyone only speaks fluent Sanskrit at a mother tongue level. It is also difficult to accept that the lingua franca of the rural masses is Sanskrit, when most the majority of L1, L2 and L3 Sanskrit tokens are linked to urban areas. The predominance of Sanskrit across the Hindi belt also shows a particular cultural/geographic affection that does not spread equally across the rest of the country. In addition, the clustering with Hindi and English, in the majority of variations possible, also suggests that a certain class element is involved. Essentially, people who identify as speakers of Sanskrit appear to be urban and educated, which possibly implies that the affiliation with Sanskrit is related in some way to at least some sort of Indian, if not, Hindu, nationalism."
↑ McCartney, Patrick (11 de maio de 2020). "The Myth of 'Sanskrit Villages' and the Realm of Soft Power". The Wire. Consultado o 24 de novembro de 2020. Quote: "Consider the example of this faith-based development narrative that has evolved over the past decade in the state of Uttarakhand. In 2010, Sanskrit became the state's second official language. ... Recently, an updated policy has increased this top-down imposition of language shift, toward Sanskrit. The new policy aims to create a Sanskrit village in every “block” (administrative division) of Uttarakhand. The state of Uttarakhand consists of two divisions, 13 districts, 79 sub-districts and 97 blocks. ... There is hardly a Sanskrit village in even one block in Uttarakhand. The curious thing is that, while 70% of the state's total population live in rural areas, 100pc of the total 246 L1-Sanskrit tokens returned at the 2011 census are from Urban areas. No L1-Sanskrit token comes from any villager who identifies as an L1-Sanskrit speaker in Uttarakhand."
↑ Sreevastan, Ajai (10 de agosto de 2014). "Where are the Sanskrit speakers?". The Hindu (Chennai). Consultado o 11 de outubro de 2020. Sanskrit is also the only scheduled language that shows wide fluctuations — rising from 6,106 speakers in 1981 to 49,736 in 1991 and then falling dramatically to 14,135 speakers in 2001. “This fluctuation is not necessarily an error of the Census method. People often switch language loyalties depending on the immediate political climate,” says Prof. Ganesh Devy of the People's Linguistic Survey of India. ... Because some people “fictitiously” indicate Sanskrit as their mother tongue owing to its high prestige and Constitutional mandate, the Census captures the persisting memory of an ancient language that is no longer anyone's real mother tongue, says B. Mallikarjun of the Center for Classical Language. Hence, the numbers fluctuate in each Census. ... “Sanskrit has influence without presence,” says Devy. “We all feel in some corner of the country, Sanskrit is spoken.” But even in Karnataka's Mattur, which is often referred to as India's Sanskrit village, hardly a handful indicated Sanskrit as their mother tongue.
↑ Lowe, John J. (2017). Transitive Nouns and Adjectives: Evidence from Early Indo-Aryan. Oxford University Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-19-879357-1. The desire to preserve understanding and knowledge of Sanskrit in the face of ongoing linguistic change drove the development of an indigenous grammatical tradition, which culminated in the composition of the Aṣṭādhyāyī, attributed to the grammarian Pāṇini, no later than the early fourth century BCE. In subsequent centuries, Sanskrit ceased to be learnt as a native language, and eventually ceased to develop as living languages do, becoming increasingly fixed according to the prescriptions of the grammatical tradition.
↑ Ruppel, A. M. (2017). The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-107-08828-3. The study of any ancient (or dead) language is faced with one main challenge: ancient languages have no native speakers who could provide us with examples of simple everyday speech
↑ Annamalai, E. (2008). "Contexts of multilingualism". En Braj B. Kachru; Yamuna Kachru; S. N. Sridhar. Language in South Asia. Cambridge University Press. pp. 223–. ISBN 978-1-139-46550-2. Some of the migrated languages ... such as Sanskrit and English, remained primarily as a second language, even though their native speakers were lost. Some native languages like the language of the Indus valley were lost with their speakers, while some linguistic communities shifted their language to one or other of the migrants' languages.
↑ Definicións no Dicionario da Real Academia Galega e no Portal das Palabras para sánscrito.
↑ Salgado, Daniel (7 de setembro de 2017). "Primeira tradución do sánscrito ao galego". Sermos Galiza. Arquivado dende o orixinal o 08 de setembro de 2017. Consultado o 8 de setembro de 2017.

Véxase tamén

Outros artigos

Wikipedia en sánscrito

Bibliografía

H. W. Bailey (1955). "Buddhist Sanskrit". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (Cambridge University Press) 87 (1/2): 13–24. JSTOR 25581326. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00106975.
Banerji, Sures (1989). A Companion to Sanskrit Literature: Spanning a period of over three thousand years, containing brief accounts of authors, works, characters, technical terms, geographical names, myths, legends, and several appendices. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0063-2.
Guy L. Beck (1995). Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1261-1.
Guy L. Beck (2006). Sacred Sound: Experiencing Music in World Religions. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-88920-421-8.
Robert S.P. Beekes (2011). Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An introduction (2nd ed.). John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 978-90-272-8500-3.
Benware, Wilbur (1974). The Study of Indo-European Vocalism in the 19th Century: From the Beginnings to Whitney and Scherer: A Critical-Historical Account. Benjamins. ISBN 978-90-272-0894-1.
Shlomo Biderman (2008). Crossing Horizons: World, Self, and Language in Indian and Western Thought. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-51159-9.
Claire Bowern; Bethwyn Evans (2015). The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-74324-8.
John L. Brockington (1998). The Sanskrit Epics. BRILL Academic. ISBN 978-90-04-10260-6.
Johannes Bronkhorst (1993). "Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit: The Original Language". Aspects of Buddhist Sanskrit: Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Language of Sanskrit Buddhist Texts, 1–5 Oct. 1991. Sarnath. pp. 396–423. ISBN 978-81-900149-1-5.
Bryant, Edwin (2001). The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513777-4.
Edwin Francis Bryant; Laurie L. Patton (2005). The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-7007-1463-6.
Burrow, Thomas (1973). The Sanskrit Language (3rd, revised ed.). Londres: Faber & Faber.
Burrow, Thomas (2001). The Sanskrit Language. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1767-2.
Robert E. Buswell Jr.; Donald S. Lopez Jr. (2013). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-4805-8.
Cardona, George (1997). Pāṇini - His work and its traditions. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0419-8.
George Cardona (2012). Sanskrit Language. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
James Clackson (18 October 2007). Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-46734-6.
Coulson, Michael (1992). Richard Gombrich; James Benson, eds. Sanskrit : an introduction to the classical language (2nd, revised by Gombrich and Benson ed.). Random House. ISBN 978-0-340-56867-5. OCLC 26550827.
Michael Coulson; Richard Gombrich; James Benson (2011). Complete Sanskrit: A Teach Yourself Guide. Mcgraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-175266-4.
Harold G. Coward (1990). Karl Potter, ed. The Philosophy of the Grammarians, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies 5. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-81-208-0426-5.
Suniti Kumar Chatterji (1957). "Indianism and Sanskrit". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute (Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute) 38 (1/2): 1–33. JSTOR 44082791.
Peter T. Daniels (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7.
Deshpande, Madhav (2011). "Efforts to vernacularize Sanskrit: Degree of success and failure". En Joshua Fishman; Ofelia Garcia. Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity: The success-failure continuum in language and ethnic identity efforts 2. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-983799-1.
Will Durant (1963). Our oriental heritage. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1567310122.
Eltschinger, Vincent (2017). "Why Did the Buddhists Adopt Sanskrit?". Open Linguistics 3 (1). ISSN 2300-9969. doi:10.1515/opli-2017-0015.
J. Filliozat (1955). "Sanskrit as Language of Communication". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute (Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute) 36 (3/4): 179–189. JSTOR 44082954.
Filliozat, Pierre-Sylvain (2004). "Ancient Sanskrit Mathematics: An Oral Tradition and a Written Literature". En Chemla, Karine; Cohen, Robert S.; Renn, Jürgen; et al. History of Science, History of Text (Boston Series in the Philosophy of Science). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 360–375. ISBN 978-1-4020-2320-0. doi:10.1007/1-4020-2321-9_7.
Pierre-Sylvain Filliozat (2000). The Sanskrit Language: An Overview : History and Structure, Linguistic and Philosophical Representations, Uses and Users. Indica. ISBN 978-81-86569-17-7.
Benjamin W. Fortson, IV (2011). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-5968-8.
Robert P. Goldman; Sally J Sutherland Goldman (2002). Devavāṇīpraveśikā: An Introduction to the Sanskrit Language. Center for South Asia Studies, University of California Press.
Thomas V. Gamkrelidze; Vjaceslav V. Ivanov (2010). Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and Proto-Culture. Part I: The Text. Part II: Bibliography, Indexes. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-081503-0.
Thomas V. Gamkrelidze; V. V. Ivanov (1990). "The Early History of Indo-European Languages". Scientific American (Nature America) 262 (3): 110–117. Bibcode:1990SciAm.262c.110G. JSTOR 24996796. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0390-110.
Jack Goody (1987). The Interface Between the Written and the Oral. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-33794-6.
Reinhold Grünendahl (2001). South Indian Scripts in Sanskrit Manuscripts and Prints: Grantha Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu, Kannada, Nandinagari. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-04504-9.
Houben, Jan (1996). Ideology and status of Sanskrit: contributions to the history of the Sanskrit language. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10613-0.
Hanneder, J. (2002). "On 'The Death of Sanskrit'". Indo-Iranian Journal 45 (4): 293–310. JSTOR 24664154. doi:10.1163/000000002124994847.
Hock, Hans Henrich (1983). Kachru, Braj B, ed. "Language-death phenomena in Sanskrit: grammatical evidence for attrition in contemporary spoken Sanskrit". Studies in the Linguistic Sciences 13 (2).
Barbara A. Holdrege (2012). Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-0695-4.
Michael C. Howard (2012). Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: The Role of Cross-Border Trade and Travel. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-9033-2.
Dhanesh Jain; George Cardona (2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9.
Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard, ed. The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1.
Stephanie W. Jamison; Joel P. Brereton (2014). The Rigveda: 3-Volume Set, Volume I. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-972078-1.
Keith, A. Berriedale (1996) [First published 1920]. A History of Sanskrit Literature. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1100-3.
Huet, Gerard (2005). "A functional toolkit for morphological and phonological processing, application to a Sanskrit tagger". Journal of Functional Programming (Cambridge University Press) 15 (4): 573–614. doi:10.1017/S0956796804005416.
Damien Keown; Charles S. Prebish (2013). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-136-98595-9.
Anne Kessler-Persaud (2009). Knut A. Jacobsen; et al., eds. Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism: Sacred texts, ritual traditions, arts, concepts. Brill Academic. ISBN 978-90-04-17893-9.
Jared Klein; Brian Joseph; Matthias Fritz (2017). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics: An International Handbook. Walter De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-026128-8.
Dalai Lama (1979). "Sanskrit in Tibetan Literature". The Tibet Journal 4 (2): 3–5. JSTOR 43299940.
Bahadur, P.; Jain, A.; Chauhan, D.S. (2011). "English to Sanskrit Machine Translation". Proceedings of the International Conference & Workshop on Emerging Trends in Technology - ICWET '11. ICWET '11: Proceedings of the International Conference & Workshop on Emerging Trends in Technology. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. p. 641. ISBN 9781450304498. doi:10.1145/1980022.1980161.
Sanyal, Ratna; Pappu, Aasish (2008). "Vaakkriti: Sanskrit Tokenizer". Proceedings of the Third International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing: Volume-II. International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (IJCNLP).
Kak, Subhash C. (1987). "The Paninian approach to natural language processing". International Journal of Approximate Reasoning 1 (1): 117–130. doi:10.1016/0888-613X(87)90007-7.
Bloomfield, Leonard (1984). Language. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226060675.
Briggs, Rick (15 March 1985). "Knowledge Representation in Sanskrit and Artificial Intelligence". AI Magazine (RIACS, NASA Ames Research Center) 6 (1). doi:10.1609/aimag.v6i1.466.
Winfred Philipp Lehmann (1996). Theoretical Bases of Indo-European Linguistics. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-13850-5.
Donald S. Lopez Jr. (1995). "Authority and Orality in the Mahāyāna" (PDF). Numen (Brill Academic) 42 (1): 21–47. JSTOR 3270278. doi:10.1163/1568527952598800. hdl:2027.42/43799.
Mahadevan, Iravatham (2003). Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01227-1.
Malhotra, Rajiv (2016). The Battle for Sanskrit: Is Sanskrit Political or Sacred, Oppressive or Liberating, Dead or Alive?. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-9351775386.
J. P. Mallory; Douglas Q. Adams (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5.
Mallory, J. P. (1992). "In Search of the Indo-Europeans / Language, Archaeology and Myth". Praehistorische Zeitschrift (Walter de Gruyter GmbH) 67 (1). ISSN 1613-0804. doi:10.1515/pz-1992-0118.
Colin P. Masica (1993). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2.
Michael Meier-Brügger (2003). Indo-European Linguistics. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-017433-5.
Michael Meier-Brügger (2013). Indo-European Linguistics. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-089514-8.
Matilal, Bimal (2015). The word and the world : India's contribution to the study of language. New Delhi, India Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-565512-4. OCLC 59319758.
Maurer, Walter (2001). The Sanskrit language: an introductory grammar and reader. Surrey, England: Curzon. ISBN 978-0-7007-1382-0.
J. P. Mallory; D. Q. Adams (2006). The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928791-8.
V. RAGHAVAN (1965). "Sanskrit". Indian Literature (Sahitya Akademi) 8 (2): 110–115. JSTOR 23329146.
MacDonell, Arthur (2004). A History Of Sanskrit Literature. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4179-0619-2.
Sir Monier Monier-Williams (2005). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-3105-6.
Tim Murray (2007). Milestones in Archaeology: A Chronological Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-186-1.
Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (1974). Study of Sanskrit in South-East Asia. Sanskrit College.
Nedi︠a︡lkov, V. P. (2007). Reciprocal constructions. Amsterdam Philadelphia: J. Benjamins Pub. Co. ISBN 978-90-272-2983-0.
Oberlies, Thomas (2003). A Grammar of Epic Sanskrit. Berlin New York: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-014448-2.
Petersen, Walter (1912). "Vedic, Sanskrit, and Prakrit". Journal of the American Oriental Society (American Oriental Society) 32 (4): 414–428. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 3087594. doi:10.2307/3087594.
Sheldon Pollock (2009). The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-26003-0.
Pollock, Sheldon (2001). "The Death of Sanskrit". Comparative Studies in Society and History (Cambridge University Press) 43 (2): 392–426. JSTOR 2696659. doi:10.1017/s001041750100353x.
V. RAGHAVAN (1968). "Sanskrit: Flow of Studies". Indian Literature (Sahitya Akademi) 11 (4): 82–87. JSTOR 24157111.
Colin Renfrew (1990). Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38675-3.
Louis Renou; Jagbans Kishore Balbir (2004). A history of Sanskrit language. Ajanta. ISBN 978-8-1202-05291.
A. M. Ruppel (2017). The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-08828-3.
Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3.
Salomon, Richard (1995). "On the Origin of the Early Indian Scripts". Journal of the American Oriental Society 115 (2): 271–279. JSTOR 604670. doi:10.2307/604670.
Malati J. Shendge (1997). The Language of the Harappans: From Akkadian to Sanskrit. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-325-0.
Seth, Sanjay (2007). Subject lessons: the Western education of colonial India. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-4105-5.
Staal, Frits (1986). The Fidelity of Oral Tradition and the Origins of Science. Mededelingen der Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie von Wetenschappen, Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing Company.
Staal, J. F. (1963). "Sanskrit and Sanskritization". The Journal of Asian Studies (Cambridge University Press) 22 (3): 261–275. JSTOR 2050186. doi:10.2307/2050186.
Angus Stevenson; Maurice Waite (2011). Concise Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-960110-3.
Southworth, Franklin (2004). Linguistic Archaeology of South Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-31777-6.
Philipp Strazny (2013). Encyclopedia of Linguistics. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-45522-4.
Paul Thieme (1958). "The Indo-European Language". Scientific American 199 (4): 63–78. Bibcode:1958SciAm.199d..63T. JSTOR 24944793. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1058-63.
Peter van der Veer (2008). "Does Sanskrit Knowledge Exist?". Journal of Indian Philosophy (Springer) 36 (5/6): 633–641. JSTOR 23497502. doi:10.1007/s10781-008-9038-8.
Umāsvāti, Umaswami (1994). That Which Is. Traducido por Nathmal Tatia. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-06-068985-8.
Wayman, Alex (1965). "The Buddhism and the Sanskrit of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit". Journal of the American Oriental Society 85 (1): 111–115. JSTOR 597713. doi:10.2307/597713.
Annette Wilke; Oliver Moebus (2011). Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-024003-0.
Whitney, W.D. (1885). "The Roots of the Sanskrit Language". Transactions of the American Philological Association (JSTOR) 16: 5–29. ISSN 0271-4442. JSTOR 2935779. doi:10.2307/2935779.
Witzel, M. (1997). Inside the texts, beyond the texts: New approaches to the study of the Vedas (PDF). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Iyengar, V. Gopala (1965). A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature. Rs. 4.
Parpola, Asko (1994). Deciphering the Indus Script. Great Britain: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43079-8.
Bloomfield, Maurice; Edgerton, Franklin (1932). Vedic Variants - Part II - Phonetics. Linguistic Society of America.

[patrick-mccartney-5-10-20-1] McCartney, Patrick (10 de maio de 2020). "Searching for Sanskrit Speakers in the Indian Census". The Wire. Consultado o 24 de novembro de 2020. Quote: "What this data tells us is that it is very difficult to believe the notion that Jhiri is a “Sanskrit village” where everyone only speaks fluent Sanskrit at a mother tongue level. It is also difficult to accept that the lingua franca of the rural masses is Sanskrit, when most the majority of L1, L2 and L3 Sanskrit tokens are linked to urban areas. The predominance of Sanskrit across the Hindi belt also shows a particular cultural/geographic affection that does not spread equally across the rest of the country. In addition, the clustering with Hindi and English, in the majority of variations possible, also suggests that a certain class element is involved. Essentially, people who identify as speakers of Sanskrit appear to be urban and educated, which possibly implies that the affiliation with Sanskrit is related in some way to at least some sort of Indian, if not, Hindu, nationalism."

[patrick-mccartney-5-11-20-2] McCartney, Patrick (11 de maio de 2020). "The Myth of 'Sanskrit Villages' and the Realm of Soft Power". The Wire. Consultado o 24 de novembro de 2020. Quote: "Consider the example of this faith-based development narrative that has evolved over the past decade in the state of Uttarakhand. In 2010, Sanskrit became the state's second official language. ... Recently, an updated policy has increased this top-down imposition of language shift, toward Sanskrit. The new policy aims to create a Sanskrit village in every “block” (administrative division) of Uttarakhand. The state of Uttarakhand consists of two divisions, 13 districts, 79 sub-districts and 97 blocks. ... There is hardly a Sanskrit village in even one block in Uttarakhand. The curious thing is that, while 70% of the state's total population live in rural areas, 100pc of the total 246 L1-Sanskrit tokens returned at the 2011 census are from Urban areas. No L1-Sanskrit token comes from any villager who identifies as an L1-Sanskrit speaker in Uttarakhand."

[sreevastan-thehindu-sanskrit-3] Sreevastan, Ajai (10 de agosto de 2014). "Where are the Sanskrit speakers?". The Hindu (Chennai). Consultado o 11 de outubro de 2020. Sanskrit is also the only scheduled language that shows wide fluctuations — rising from 6,106 speakers in 1981 to 49,736 in 1991 and then falling dramatically to 14,135 speakers in 2001. “This fluctuation is not necessarily an error of the Census method. People often switch language loyalties depending on the immediate political climate,” says Prof. Ganesh Devy of the People's Linguistic Survey of India. ... Because some people “fictitiously” indicate Sanskrit as their mother tongue owing to its high prestige and Constitutional mandate, the Census captures the persisting memory of an ancient language that is no longer anyone's real mother tongue, says B. Mallikarjun of the Center for Classical Language. Hence, the numbers fluctuate in each Census. ... “Sanskrit has influence without presence,” says Devy. “We all feel in some corner of the country, Sanskrit is spoken.” But even in Karnataka's Mattur, which is often referred to as India's Sanskrit village, hardly a handful indicated Sanskrit as their mother tongue.

[Lowe2017-4] Lowe, John J. (2017). Transitive Nouns and Adjectives: Evidence from Early Indo-Aryan. Oxford University Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-19-879357-1. The desire to preserve understanding and knowledge of Sanskrit in the face of ongoing linguistic change drove the development of an indigenous grammatical tradition, which culminated in the composition of the Aṣṭādhyāyī, attributed to the grammarian Pāṇini, no later than the early fourth century BCE. In subsequent centuries, Sanskrit ceased to be learnt as a native language, and eventually ceased to develop as living languages do, becoming increasingly fixed according to the prescriptions of the grammatical tradition.

[Ruppel2017-5] Ruppel, A. M. (2017). The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-107-08828-3. The study of any ancient (or dead) language is faced with one main challenge: ancient languages have no native speakers who could provide us with examples of simple everyday speech

[KachruKachru2008-6] Annamalai, E. (2008). "Contexts of multilingualism". En Braj B. Kachru; Yamuna Kachru; S. N. Sridhar. Language in South Asia. Cambridge University Press. pp. 223–. ISBN 978-1-139-46550-2. Some of the migrated languages ... such as Sanskrit and English, remained primarily as a second language, even though their native speakers were lost. Some native languages like the language of the Indus valley were lost with their speakers, while some linguistic communities shifted their language to one or other of the migrants' languages.

[7] Definicións no Dicionario da Real Academia Galega e no Portal das Palabras para sánscrito.

[8] Salgado, Daniel (7 de setembro de 2017). "Primeira tradución do sánscrito ao galego". Sermos Galiza. Arquivado dende o orixinal o 08 de setembro de 2017. Consultado o 8 de setembro de 2017.

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

Directory