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Greg Brown

California Polytechnic State University at San Luis Obispo, Natural Resources Management & Environmental Sciences, Faculty Member

The University of Queensland, Australia, School of Geography, Planning and Environmental Management, Faculty Member

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Phone: 805-756-6391
Address: Natural Resources Management & Environmental Sciences Department
California Polytechnic State University
San Luis Obispo, CA 93407

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lorena gimenez muñoz

Lorena Esteban Muñoz

Amalia Vaneska Palacio Buendia

Universidad Internacional Isabel I de Castilla

Natural Resources Institute Finland

Aalto University

Damien Le Guyader

Mélanie Requier-Desjardins

Lusine Margaryan

Norwegian University of Life Sciences

Stephan Pauleit

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Papers by Greg Brown

Identifying spatial overlap in the values of locals, domestic- and international tourists to protected areas

Tourism Management, 2019

Nature-based tourism is increasingly encouraged to support local socioeconomic development in and... more Nature-based tourism is increasingly encouraged to support local socioeconomic development in and around protected areas, but managing protected areas for tourism could challenge existing park uses associated with self-organized outdoor recreation and local resource use. We used a web-based Public Participatory Geographic Information System (PPGIS) to identify the most important places and values of local, domestic, and international visitors to Jotunheimen National Park and Utladalen Protected Landscape in Norway. Scenic and recreation values were prioritized by all groups, but local users mapped more values relating to hunting, fishing, gathering and cultural identity. While the three user groups overlapped in some places, we found that they selfsegregated to some extent. Our study affirms the importance of spatially explicit analyses to support protected area management. Understanding the spatial distribution of values held by different user groups can aid in designing tourism management strategies that minimize intergroup conflict.

Valuing the wild, remote and beautiful: using public participation GIS to inform tourism planning in the Kimberley, Western Australia

International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, 2016

The remote Kimberley region in Western Australia presents a unique nature-based tourism destinati... more The remote Kimberley region in Western Australia presents a unique nature-based tourism destination. One of the world's last wildernesses, the Kimberley is one of the least-impacted marine environments in the world. Tourism in the region is growing rapidly, driven by stunning natural landscapes, unparalleled nature-based experiences and a vibrant indigenous culture. Despite this, there has been virtually no research into how stakeholders value the Kimberley and spatially explicit investigations are lacking. State marine protected area planning, currently in a formative stage in the region, requires such spatially explicit social data to complement existing biophysical information. This paper reports on findings from a Public Participation GIS survey with 206 stakeholders undertaken in 2015 as part of a broader research project into socio-cultural values and management preferences for the Kimberley coast. Stakeholders' spatially linked values were collected via an internet-based mapping survey for the purpose of supporting future planning and management in the region. Stakeholders mapped over 4,100 value locations, with values relating to scenery/aesthetics, recreational fishing, Aboriginal culture and naturebased tourism being most prominent. Analysis identified a clear spatial clustering of values across the region with a number of value 'hotspots' evident. Tourism planners and managers can analyse these hotspots to identify areas of potential congruence and conflict, thus assisting in retaining the qualities of the region that support ongoing tourism. By generating spatially explicit information on stakeholder values and areas of importance, this research makes an important contribution to tourism planning and management in the Kimberley.

Applying public participation GIS (PPGIS) to inform and manage visitor conflict along multi-use trails

Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 2017

is an urban green space and protected areas specialist including on all aspects of park visitor r... more is an urban green space and protected areas specialist including on all aspects of park visitor research and monitoring, sustainable and outcome-focussed visitor experience development and management. She is leading GIS-related visitor monitoring projects. Trained as an ecologist, her specialities are the human dimensions of ecosystems, with work on people and animal behaviour and flora and fauna communities among other in tourism and recreations systems. Isabelle has a PhD degree from the University of New South Wales and has published in both social and environmental science journals.

Identifying ‘public values’ for marine and coastal planning: Are residents and non-residents really so different?

Ocean & Coastal Management, 2017

Identifying 'public values' for marine and coastal planning: Are residents and non-residents real... more

Assessing multiple approaches for modelling land-use conflict potential from participatory mapping data

Land Use Policy, 2017

Spatial social data collected through participatory mapping are increasingly used to assess socia... more Spatial social data collected through participatory mapping are increasingly used to assess social dimensions for land use planning and management. However, there has been limited research to evaluate alternative approaches to identify potential land-use conflict. Using data from Queensland, Australia, we applied multiple approaches (land-use preferences, weighted preferences, combined place values and land-use preferences, and value compatibility scoring to identify land-use conflict potential and to assess these methods for four different land uses (residential development, tourism development, mining, and conservation). The performance of these approaches were evaluated using selected reference sites in the study area to determine which spatial attributes and methods were most predictive of conflict potential. Weighted preferences, and combined place values and land-use preferences were most effective for all land use types. The conflict mapping results for mining and conservation were sensitive to the number of place value and land-use preference points available for analysis and the number of individuals participating in the mapping process. To determine the inferential quality of conflict mapping results, we operationalised confidence levels based on the number of unique participants that mapped preferences in a given location. Overall, the highest confidence in mapped results was observed for tourism development, followed by mining, conservation, and residential development. Confidence levels varied across the study area and by reference sites. The findings of this study increase the external validity of preference-based conflict mapping methods while demonstrating a means to assess the inferential quality of conflict mapping results. The generation of confidence levels can assist in the prioritization and allocation of planning resources to places with both high conflict potential and high confidence.

Cultural ecosystem values of the Kimberley coastline: An empirical analysis with implications for coastal and marine policy

Ocean & Coastal Management, 2017

Cultural ecosystem services have received increasing attention in land/marine use planning but re... more Cultural ecosystem services have received increasing attention in land/marine use planning but remain poorly known, expressed, and utilised in planning processes. Progress in marine spatial planning requires better information regarding the full range of values and benefits received from ecosystem services, including cultural ecosystem values. This paper reports on an online Public Participation GIS (PPGIS) study that collected spatially explicit information on cultural ecosystem values in the remote Kimberley coastal region in northwestern Australia. The coastal zone e 20 km landwards and seawards e was found to be highly valued with values disproportionally located 0e2 km onshore. The number of value markers placed was related to tenure, access (i.e., density of tracks), population density, and geomorphology. Methodologically, Public Participation GIS describes the location and extent of values providing for the exploration of relationships between values and other planning features such as tenure and coastal access. Inclusion of such information in marine spatial planning and policy formulation can contribute to more thoughtful and inclusive decisions regarding the future of coastal zones. The use of internet-based Public Participation GIS is particularly useful for long, remote coastlines with widely dispersed stakeholder interests where other methods such as interviews and workshops are not feasible.

Identifying conflict potential in a coastal and marine environment using participatory mapping

Journal of environmental management, Jan 15, 2017

Planning for coastal and marine environments is often characterized by conflict over current and ... more Planning for coastal and marine environments is often characterized by conflict over current and proposed uses. Marine spatial planning has been proposed as a way forward, however, social data are often missing impeding decision-making. Participatory mapping, a technique useful for providing social data and predict conflict potential, is being used in an increasing number of terrestrial applications to inform planning, but has been little used in the marine realm. This study collected social data for an extensive coastline in northwestern Australia via 167 in-depth face-to-face interviews including participant mapping of place values. From the transcribed interviews and digitized maps, we inductively identified 17 values, with biodiversity, the physical landscape, and Aboriginal culture being most valued. To spatially identify conflict potential, values were classified in matrices as consumptive or non-consumptive with the former assumed to be less compatible with other values. Pair...

Understanding the effects of different social data on selecting priority conservation areas

Conservation Biology, 2017

Conservation success is contingent on assessing social and environmental factors so that cost‐eff... more Conservation success is contingent on assessing social and environmental factors so that cost‐effective implementation of strategies and actions can be placed in a broad social–ecological context. Until now, the focus has been on how to include spatially explicit social data in conservation planning, whereas the value of different kinds of social data has received limited attention. In a regional systematic conservation planning case study in Australia, we examined the spatial concurrence of a range of spatially explicit social values and land‐use preferences collected using a public participation geographic information system and biological data. We used Zonation to integrate the social data with the biological data in a series of spatial‐prioritization scenarios to determine the effect of the different types of social data on spatial prioritization compared with biological data alone. The type of social data (i.e., conservation opportunities or constraints) significantly affected ...

Mixed methods participatory GIS: An evaluation of the validity of qualitative and quantitative mapping methods

Applied Geography, 2017

Participatory mapping in social research is characterized by methodological pluralism, with two c... more Participatory mapping in social research is characterized by methodological pluralism, with two common methods being qualitative mapping using stakeholder interviews and quantitative methods that engage larger public samples through digital, internet mapping. To date, there has been no systematic evaluation of the extent to which mixed methods in participatory mapping yield valid results when applied to the same research setting and research questions. A mixed methods research design (combined exploratory sequential and convergent parallel) was implemented in a large research project to identify marine and coastal values in the Kimberley region of Australia. Qualitative interviews (n ¼ 167) were completed with stakeholders to identify place-based values using polygon mapping methods and internet-based public participation GIS (PPGIS) methods (n ¼ 578). We defined and operationalized the concepts of concurrent, commensurate, and convergent validity to assess mixed methods research outcomes. We found that qualitative and quantitative methods resulted in moderate to high concurrent validity when assessing the importance of place values in the study area. Convergent validity (spatial) was highly variable by place value, with stronger convergent validity found with mapped aesthetic, recreational fishing, tourism, biodiversity, and Aboriginal culture values, and weakest with existence, therapeutic, and commercial fishing values. Convergent validity was influenced by weak commensurate validity through the use of different geometric features (polygons versus points) for mapping values across a large study area. The utility of mixed methods for planning decision support in a convergent parallel design depends on demonstrating convergence in construct meaning, spatial location, and consistency in values in the sampling populations.

Marine spatial planning for the future: Using Public Participation GIS (PPGIS) to inform the human dimension for large marine parks

Marine Policy, 2016

Highlights:  Effective marine spatial planning requires understanding of social data  Kimberley... more Highlights:  Effective marine spatial planning requires understanding of social data  Kimberley coast has multiple values and preferences, suggesting potential for conflict  Larger, remote MPAs are highly valued and should not be assumed conflict-free  Participatory mapping provides valuable socio-spatial data for marine spatial planning Marine spatial planning for the future: Using Public Participation GIS (PPGIS) to inform the human dimension for large marine parks

An empirical evaluation of spatial value transfer methods for identifying cultural ecosystem services

Ecological Indicators, 2016

A significant barrier the assessment of ecosystem services is a lack of primary data, especially ... more A significant barrier the assessment of ecosystem services is a lack of primary data, especially for cultural ecosystem services. Spatial value transfer, also known as benefits transfer, is a method used in the absence of primary data to identify the probable locations of ecosystem services based on empirical spatial associations found in other geographic locations. To date, there has been no systematic empirical evaluation of spatial value transfer methods for cultural ecosystem services identified through participatory mapping. This research paper addresses this knowledge gap by examining key variables that can influence value transfer results for cultural ecosystem services: (1) the geographic setting for value transfer, (2) the type of ecosystem services being value-transferred, and (3) the land cover data selected for the value-transfer process. Empirical spatial data collected using public participation GIS (PPGIS) processes in two different regions in Norway were used to evaluate spatial value transfer outcomes (similarity in maps) where the actual mapped distribution of cultural ecosystem values were compared to maps generated using value transfer coefficients. We evaluated spatial value transfer for six cultural ecosystem values using two different land cover classification systems Global Cover (300m resolution) and Corine (100m resolution). Spatial value transfer maps based on the distribution of mapped ecosystem values produced strongly correlated results to primary data in both regions. Given these results, we identify the conditions where it is appropriate to use spatial value transfer for mapping cultural ecosystem services in the absence of primary data.

Stakeholder analysis for marine conservation planning using public participation GIS

Applied Geography, 2016

Stakeholders are presumed to represent different interests for marine and coastal areas with the ... more Stakeholders are presumed to represent different interests for marine and coastal areas with the potential to influence marine protected area planning and management. We implemented a public participation GIS (PPGIS) system in the remote Kimberley region of Australia to identify the spatial values and preferences for marine and coastal areas. We assessed similarities and differences in PPGIS participants (N=578) using three operational definitions for "stakeholder" based on: (1) self-identified group, (2) self-identified future interests in the region, and (3) participant value orientation that reflects a preferred trade-off between environmental and economic outcomes. We found moderate levels of association between alternative stakeholder classifications that were logically related to general and place-specific participatory mapping behavior in the study region. We then analyzed how stakeholder classifications influence specific management preferences for proposed marine protected areas (MPAs) in the study region. 17 Conservation-related values and preferences dominated the mapped results in all proposed 18 marine reserves, the likely result of volunteer sampling bias by conservation stakeholder interests 19 participating in the study. However, we suggest these results may also reflect the highly 20 politicized process of marine conservation planning in the Kimberley where conservation efforts 21 have recently emerged and galvanized to oppose a major offshore gas development and 22 associated land-based infrastructure. Consistent with other participatory mapping studies, our 23 results indicate that the chosen operational definition for stakeholder group such as group 24 identity versus interests can influence participatory mapping outcomes, with implications for 25 MPA designation and management. Future research is needed to better understand the strengths 26 and limitations of participatory mapping that is framed in stakeholder perspectives, especially 27 when sampling relies heavily on volunteer recruitment and participation methods that appear 28 predisposed to participatory bias. In parallel, practical efforts to ensure that social research 29 efforts such as this are included in MPA planning must remain of the highest priority for 30 scientists and managers alike. 31

Methods and participatory approaches for identifying social-ecological hotspots

Applied Geography, 2015

Understanding the relationship between humans and their environment is essential for the planning... more Understanding the relationship between humans and their environment is essential for the planning and management of social-ecological systems but integration of social values with biophysical landscape information remains challenging. Identifying areas that are likely to be pivotal in land use planning decisions from both social and ecological perspectives provides one means of integration. Socialecological "hotspots" represent valuable areas from both human and environmental perspectives but appropriate and valid methods for identifying such areas are underdeveloped. We applied an inductive research approach using empirical spatial data from a regional study in Australia to evaluate alternative methods for identifying social-ecological hotspots. Social data measuring the importance of the landscape was collected using public participation geographic information systems (PPGIS) while ecologically valuable areas were identified from species distributions and Zonation conservation prioritization software. We applied multiple importance thresholds (cut-offs) to separately identify and measure social and ecological hotspots, and then quantified the degree of spatial concurrence (overlap) when combining the layers to generate social-ecological hotspots. Based on the findings, we developed guidelines for identifying social-ecological hotspots under variable data conditions. We describe the practical implications of our findings by showing how the selected method for SES hotspot identification can enhance or limit the utility of hotspot analysis for decision support in regional conservation planning.

The use of public participation GIS (PPGIS) for park visitor management: A case study of mountain biking

Tourism Management, 2015

Spatially-explicit participatory planning is a relatively new approach for managing visitors to p... more Spatially-explicit participatory planning is a relatively new approach for managing visitors to protected areas. In this study we used public participation geographic information systems (PPGIS) mapping and global positioning system (GPS) tracking to monitor mountain bikers frequenting national parks for tourism and recreation in Northern Sydney, Australia. PPGIS was implemented using both an internet application and with hardcopy maps in the field. Our research addressed two fundamental questions for park planning: (1) What is the spatial distribution of visitor activities and location-specific reasons for riding; and (2) What location-specific actions are needed to improve riding experiences? The spatial distributions of riding activities generated in PPGIS showed strong correlation with the GPS tracking results, with riding locations being related to the reasons for track selection. Riders proposed a broad range of management actions to improve riding experiences. PPGIS mapping provides a costeffective approach to facilitate spatial decision making, allowing park agencies to prioritise future visitor management actions. We discuss the strengths and limitations of these research methods.

Which ‘public'? Sampling effects in public participation GIS (PPGIS) and volunteered geographic information (VGI) systems for public lands management

Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 2013

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or s... more This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.

Identifying Environmental and Natural Resource Management Conflict Potential Using Participatory Mapping

Society & Natural Resources

Methods have been proposed for identifying land use conflict potential using participatory mappin... more Methods have been proposed for identifying land use conflict potential using participatory mapping data and models. In a case study from Finland, we extend conflict mapping research by evaluating the capacity for participatory mapping to identify conflict for land uses that include mining, tourism development, commercial forestry, recreation, and nature protection. We evaluated two conflict models using reference sites where conflict was expected and assessed whether conflict potential was influenced by participant social group (resident, visitor, holiday home owner). The conflict models correctly identified the locations of current and proposed mining projects and major tourism locations (ski areas) in the region, while conflict for commercial forestry and reindeer herding was spatially distributed. Preferences for land use by social group were more similar than different across the study region. Identification of conflict potential using participatory mapping can provide a useful planning diagnostic but would benefit from additional research for validation.

Using public participatory mapping to inform general land use planning and zoning

Zoning is a ubiquitous land use planning and regulatory mechanism whose purpose is to provide for... more Zoning is a ubiquitous land use planning and regulatory mechanism whose purpose is to provide for orderly community growth and development by segregating land uses that are deemed incompatible. The delineation of zones and related land use ordinances are traditional components of an expert-driven, local government process that produces a general or comprehensive land use plan as required by law. Public participation in the development of general land use plans has rarely used participatory mapping methods that engage the general public to explicitly inform zoning decisions. In this study, we demonstrate how participatory mapping methods can assess the consistency, compatibility, and potential conflict of zoning with public values and preferences in a general plan revision process using a coastal community in California as a case study. We describe the participatory mapping design, data collection, and data analyses in a workflow to illustrate the methods, and present the strengths a...

Empirical PPGIS/PGIS mapping of ecosystem services: A review and evaluation

Ecosystem Services, 2014

ABSTRACT We review public participation GIS (PPGIS) and participatory GIS (PGIS) approaches for e... more ABSTRACT We review public participation GIS (PPGIS) and participatory GIS (PGIS) approaches for ecosystem services to identify current and best practice. PPGIS/PGIS are spatially explicit methods that have evolved over the past decade to identify a range of ecosystem services. Although PPGIS/PGIS methods demonstrate high potential for the identification of ecosystem services, especially cultural services, there has been no review to evaluate the methods to identify best practice. Through examination of peer-reviewed, empirical PPGIS/PGIS studies, we describe the types of ecosystem services mapped, the spatial mapping methods, the sampling approaches and range of participants, the types of spatial analyses performed, and the methodological trade-offs associated with each PPGIS/PGIS mapping approach. We found that multiple methods were implemented in nearly 30 case studies worldwide with the mapping of cultural and provisioning services being most common. There was little evidence that mapped ecosystem data was used for actual decision support in land use planning. Best practice has yet to coalesce in this field that has been dominated by methodological pluralism and case study research. We suggest greater use of experimental design and long-term case studies where the influence of mapped ecosystem services on land use decisions can be assessed.

A system dynamics simulation model for sustainable water resources management and agricultural development in the Volta River Basin, Ghana

The Science of the total environment, Jan 26, 2016

In a rapidly changing water resources system, dynamic models based on the notion of systems think... more In a rapidly changing water resources system, dynamic models based on the notion of systems thinking can serve as useful analytical tools for scientists and policy-makers to study changes in key system variables over time. In this paper, an integrated system dynamics simulation model was developed using a system dynamics modelling approach to examine the feedback processes and interaction between the population, the water resource, and the agricultural production sub-sectors of the Volta River Basin in West Africa. The objective of the model is to provide a learning tool for policy-makers to improve their understanding of the long-term dynamic behaviour of the basin, and as a decision support tool for exploring plausible policy scenarios necessary for sustainable water resource management and agricultural development. Structural and behavioural pattern tests, and statistical test were used to evaluate and validate the performance of the model. The results showed that the simulated o...

The influence of sampling design on spatial data quality in a geographic citizen science project

Transactions in GIS, 2019

Geographic citizen science has much potential to assist in wildlife research and conservation, bu... more Geographic citizen science has much potential to assist in wildlife research and conservation, but the quality of observation data is a key concern. We examined the effects of sampling design on the quality of spatial data collected for a koala citizen science project in Australia. Data were collected from three samples-volunteers (n = 454), an Internet panel (n = 103), and landowners (n = 35)-to assess spatial data quality, a dimension of citizen science projects rarely considered. The locational accuracy of koala observations among the samples was similar when benchmarked against authoritative data (i.e., an expert-derived koala distribution model), but there were differences in the quantity of data generated. Fewer koala location data were generated per participant by the Internet panel sample than the volunteer or landowner samples. Spatial preferences for land uses affecting koala conservation were also mapped, with landowners more likely to map locations for residential and tourism development and volunteers less likely. These spatial preferences have the potential to influence the social acceptability of future koala conservation proposals. With careful sampling design, both citizen observations and land use

Identifying spatial overlap in the values of locals, domestic- and international tourists to protected areas

Tourism Management, 2019

Nature-based tourism is increasingly encouraged to support local socioeconomic development in and... more Nature-based tourism is increasingly encouraged to support local socioeconomic development in and around protected areas, but managing protected areas for tourism could challenge existing park uses associated with self-organized outdoor recreation and local resource use. We used a web-based Public Participatory Geographic Information System (PPGIS) to identify the most important places and values of local, domestic, and international visitors to Jotunheimen National Park and Utladalen Protected Landscape in Norway. Scenic and recreation values were prioritized by all groups, but local users mapped more values relating to hunting, fishing, gathering and cultural identity. While the three user groups overlapped in some places, we found that they selfsegregated to some extent. Our study affirms the importance of spatially explicit analyses to support protected area management. Understanding the spatial distribution of values held by different user groups can aid in designing tourism management strategies that minimize intergroup conflict.

Valuing the wild, remote and beautiful: using public participation GIS to inform tourism planning in the Kimberley, Western Australia

International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, 2016

The remote Kimberley region in Western Australia presents a unique nature-based tourism destinati... more The remote Kimberley region in Western Australia presents a unique nature-based tourism destination. One of the world's last wildernesses, the Kimberley is one of the least-impacted marine environments in the world. Tourism in the region is growing rapidly, driven by stunning natural landscapes, unparalleled nature-based experiences and a vibrant indigenous culture. Despite this, there has been virtually no research into how stakeholders value the Kimberley and spatially explicit investigations are lacking. State marine protected area planning, currently in a formative stage in the region, requires such spatially explicit social data to complement existing biophysical information. This paper reports on findings from a Public Participation GIS survey with 206 stakeholders undertaken in 2015 as part of a broader research project into socio-cultural values and management preferences for the Kimberley coast. Stakeholders' spatially linked values were collected via an internet-based mapping survey for the purpose of supporting future planning and management in the region. Stakeholders mapped over 4,100 value locations, with values relating to scenery/aesthetics, recreational fishing, Aboriginal culture and naturebased tourism being most prominent. Analysis identified a clear spatial clustering of values across the region with a number of value 'hotspots' evident. Tourism planners and managers can analyse these hotspots to identify areas of potential congruence and conflict, thus assisting in retaining the qualities of the region that support ongoing tourism. By generating spatially explicit information on stakeholder values and areas of importance, this research makes an important contribution to tourism planning and management in the Kimberley.

Applying public participation GIS (PPGIS) to inform and manage visitor conflict along multi-use trails

Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 2017

is an urban green space and protected areas specialist including on all aspects of park visitor r... more is an urban green space and protected areas specialist including on all aspects of park visitor research and monitoring, sustainable and outcome-focussed visitor experience development and management. She is leading GIS-related visitor monitoring projects. Trained as an ecologist, her specialities are the human dimensions of ecosystems, with work on people and animal behaviour and flora and fauna communities among other in tourism and recreations systems. Isabelle has a PhD degree from the University of New South Wales and has published in both social and environmental science journals.

Identifying ‘public values’ for marine and coastal planning: Are residents and non-residents really so different?

Ocean & Coastal Management, 2017

Identifying 'public values' for marine and coastal planning: Are residents and non-residents real... more

Assessing multiple approaches for modelling land-use conflict potential from participatory mapping data

Land Use Policy, 2017

Spatial social data collected through participatory mapping are increasingly used to assess socia... more Spatial social data collected through participatory mapping are increasingly used to assess social dimensions for land use planning and management. However, there has been limited research to evaluate alternative approaches to identify potential land-use conflict. Using data from Queensland, Australia, we applied multiple approaches (land-use preferences, weighted preferences, combined place values and land-use preferences, and value compatibility scoring to identify land-use conflict potential and to assess these methods for four different land uses (residential development, tourism development, mining, and conservation). The performance of these approaches were evaluated using selected reference sites in the study area to determine which spatial attributes and methods were most predictive of conflict potential. Weighted preferences, and combined place values and land-use preferences were most effective for all land use types. The conflict mapping results for mining and conservation were sensitive to the number of place value and land-use preference points available for analysis and the number of individuals participating in the mapping process. To determine the inferential quality of conflict mapping results, we operationalised confidence levels based on the number of unique participants that mapped preferences in a given location. Overall, the highest confidence in mapped results was observed for tourism development, followed by mining, conservation, and residential development. Confidence levels varied across the study area and by reference sites. The findings of this study increase the external validity of preference-based conflict mapping methods while demonstrating a means to assess the inferential quality of conflict mapping results. The generation of confidence levels can assist in the prioritization and allocation of planning resources to places with both high conflict potential and high confidence.

Cultural ecosystem values of the Kimberley coastline: An empirical analysis with implications for coastal and marine policy

Ocean & Coastal Management, 2017

Cultural ecosystem services have received increasing attention in land/marine use planning but re... more Cultural ecosystem services have received increasing attention in land/marine use planning but remain poorly known, expressed, and utilised in planning processes. Progress in marine spatial planning requires better information regarding the full range of values and benefits received from ecosystem services, including cultural ecosystem values. This paper reports on an online Public Participation GIS (PPGIS) study that collected spatially explicit information on cultural ecosystem values in the remote Kimberley coastal region in northwestern Australia. The coastal zone e 20 km landwards and seawards e was found to be highly valued with values disproportionally located 0e2 km onshore. The number of value markers placed was related to tenure, access (i.e., density of tracks), population density, and geomorphology. Methodologically, Public Participation GIS describes the location and extent of values providing for the exploration of relationships between values and other planning features such as tenure and coastal access. Inclusion of such information in marine spatial planning and policy formulation can contribute to more thoughtful and inclusive decisions regarding the future of coastal zones. The use of internet-based Public Participation GIS is particularly useful for long, remote coastlines with widely dispersed stakeholder interests where other methods such as interviews and workshops are not feasible.

Identifying conflict potential in a coastal and marine environment using participatory mapping

Journal of environmental management, Jan 15, 2017

Planning for coastal and marine environments is often characterized by conflict over current and ... more Planning for coastal and marine environments is often characterized by conflict over current and proposed uses. Marine spatial planning has been proposed as a way forward, however, social data are often missing impeding decision-making. Participatory mapping, a technique useful for providing social data and predict conflict potential, is being used in an increasing number of terrestrial applications to inform planning, but has been little used in the marine realm. This study collected social data for an extensive coastline in northwestern Australia via 167 in-depth face-to-face interviews including participant mapping of place values. From the transcribed interviews and digitized maps, we inductively identified 17 values, with biodiversity, the physical landscape, and Aboriginal culture being most valued. To spatially identify conflict potential, values were classified in matrices as consumptive or non-consumptive with the former assumed to be less compatible with other values. Pair...

Understanding the effects of different social data on selecting priority conservation areas

Conservation Biology, 2017

Conservation success is contingent on assessing social and environmental factors so that cost‐eff... more Conservation success is contingent on assessing social and environmental factors so that cost‐effective implementation of strategies and actions can be placed in a broad social–ecological context. Until now, the focus has been on how to include spatially explicit social data in conservation planning, whereas the value of different kinds of social data has received limited attention. In a regional systematic conservation planning case study in Australia, we examined the spatial concurrence of a range of spatially explicit social values and land‐use preferences collected using a public participation geographic information system and biological data. We used Zonation to integrate the social data with the biological data in a series of spatial‐prioritization scenarios to determine the effect of the different types of social data on spatial prioritization compared with biological data alone. The type of social data (i.e., conservation opportunities or constraints) significantly affected ...

Mixed methods participatory GIS: An evaluation of the validity of qualitative and quantitative mapping methods

Applied Geography, 2017

Participatory mapping in social research is characterized by methodological pluralism, with two c... more Participatory mapping in social research is characterized by methodological pluralism, with two common methods being qualitative mapping using stakeholder interviews and quantitative methods that engage larger public samples through digital, internet mapping. To date, there has been no systematic evaluation of the extent to which mixed methods in participatory mapping yield valid results when applied to the same research setting and research questions. A mixed methods research design (combined exploratory sequential and convergent parallel) was implemented in a large research project to identify marine and coastal values in the Kimberley region of Australia. Qualitative interviews (n ¼ 167) were completed with stakeholders to identify place-based values using polygon mapping methods and internet-based public participation GIS (PPGIS) methods (n ¼ 578). We defined and operationalized the concepts of concurrent, commensurate, and convergent validity to assess mixed methods research outcomes. We found that qualitative and quantitative methods resulted in moderate to high concurrent validity when assessing the importance of place values in the study area. Convergent validity (spatial) was highly variable by place value, with stronger convergent validity found with mapped aesthetic, recreational fishing, tourism, biodiversity, and Aboriginal culture values, and weakest with existence, therapeutic, and commercial fishing values. Convergent validity was influenced by weak commensurate validity through the use of different geometric features (polygons versus points) for mapping values across a large study area. The utility of mixed methods for planning decision support in a convergent parallel design depends on demonstrating convergence in construct meaning, spatial location, and consistency in values in the sampling populations.

Marine spatial planning for the future: Using Public Participation GIS (PPGIS) to inform the human dimension for large marine parks

Marine Policy, 2016

Highlights:  Effective marine spatial planning requires understanding of social data  Kimberley... more Highlights:  Effective marine spatial planning requires understanding of social data  Kimberley coast has multiple values and preferences, suggesting potential for conflict  Larger, remote MPAs are highly valued and should not be assumed conflict-free  Participatory mapping provides valuable socio-spatial data for marine spatial planning Marine spatial planning for the future: Using Public Participation GIS (PPGIS) to inform the human dimension for large marine parks

An empirical evaluation of spatial value transfer methods for identifying cultural ecosystem services

Ecological Indicators, 2016

A significant barrier the assessment of ecosystem services is a lack of primary data, especially ... more A significant barrier the assessment of ecosystem services is a lack of primary data, especially for cultural ecosystem services. Spatial value transfer, also known as benefits transfer, is a method used in the absence of primary data to identify the probable locations of ecosystem services based on empirical spatial associations found in other geographic locations. To date, there has been no systematic empirical evaluation of spatial value transfer methods for cultural ecosystem services identified through participatory mapping. This research paper addresses this knowledge gap by examining key variables that can influence value transfer results for cultural ecosystem services: (1) the geographic setting for value transfer, (2) the type of ecosystem services being value-transferred, and (3) the land cover data selected for the value-transfer process. Empirical spatial data collected using public participation GIS (PPGIS) processes in two different regions in Norway were used to evaluate spatial value transfer outcomes (similarity in maps) where the actual mapped distribution of cultural ecosystem values were compared to maps generated using value transfer coefficients. We evaluated spatial value transfer for six cultural ecosystem values using two different land cover classification systems Global Cover (300m resolution) and Corine (100m resolution). Spatial value transfer maps based on the distribution of mapped ecosystem values produced strongly correlated results to primary data in both regions. Given these results, we identify the conditions where it is appropriate to use spatial value transfer for mapping cultural ecosystem services in the absence of primary data.

Stakeholder analysis for marine conservation planning using public participation GIS

Applied Geography, 2016

Stakeholders are presumed to represent different interests for marine and coastal areas with the ... more Stakeholders are presumed to represent different interests for marine and coastal areas with the potential to influence marine protected area planning and management. We implemented a public participation GIS (PPGIS) system in the remote Kimberley region of Australia to identify the spatial values and preferences for marine and coastal areas. We assessed similarities and differences in PPGIS participants (N=578) using three operational definitions for "stakeholder" based on: (1) self-identified group, (2) self-identified future interests in the region, and (3) participant value orientation that reflects a preferred trade-off between environmental and economic outcomes. We found moderate levels of association between alternative stakeholder classifications that were logically related to general and place-specific participatory mapping behavior in the study region. We then analyzed how stakeholder classifications influence specific management preferences for proposed marine protected areas (MPAs) in the study region. 17 Conservation-related values and preferences dominated the mapped results in all proposed 18 marine reserves, the likely result of volunteer sampling bias by conservation stakeholder interests 19 participating in the study. However, we suggest these results may also reflect the highly 20 politicized process of marine conservation planning in the Kimberley where conservation efforts 21 have recently emerged and galvanized to oppose a major offshore gas development and 22 associated land-based infrastructure. Consistent with other participatory mapping studies, our 23 results indicate that the chosen operational definition for stakeholder group such as group 24 identity versus interests can influence participatory mapping outcomes, with implications for 25 MPA designation and management. Future research is needed to better understand the strengths 26 and limitations of participatory mapping that is framed in stakeholder perspectives, especially 27 when sampling relies heavily on volunteer recruitment and participation methods that appear 28 predisposed to participatory bias. In parallel, practical efforts to ensure that social research 29 efforts such as this are included in MPA planning must remain of the highest priority for 30 scientists and managers alike. 31

Methods and participatory approaches for identifying social-ecological hotspots

Applied Geography, 2015

Understanding the relationship between humans and their environment is essential for the planning... more Understanding the relationship between humans and their environment is essential for the planning and management of social-ecological systems but integration of social values with biophysical landscape information remains challenging. Identifying areas that are likely to be pivotal in land use planning decisions from both social and ecological perspectives provides one means of integration. Socialecological "hotspots" represent valuable areas from both human and environmental perspectives but appropriate and valid methods for identifying such areas are underdeveloped. We applied an inductive research approach using empirical spatial data from a regional study in Australia to evaluate alternative methods for identifying social-ecological hotspots. Social data measuring the importance of the landscape was collected using public participation geographic information systems (PPGIS) while ecologically valuable areas were identified from species distributions and Zonation conservation prioritization software. We applied multiple importance thresholds (cut-offs) to separately identify and measure social and ecological hotspots, and then quantified the degree of spatial concurrence (overlap) when combining the layers to generate social-ecological hotspots. Based on the findings, we developed guidelines for identifying social-ecological hotspots under variable data conditions. We describe the practical implications of our findings by showing how the selected method for SES hotspot identification can enhance or limit the utility of hotspot analysis for decision support in regional conservation planning.

The use of public participation GIS (PPGIS) for park visitor management: A case study of mountain biking

Tourism Management, 2015

Spatially-explicit participatory planning is a relatively new approach for managing visitors to p... more Spatially-explicit participatory planning is a relatively new approach for managing visitors to protected areas. In this study we used public participation geographic information systems (PPGIS) mapping and global positioning system (GPS) tracking to monitor mountain bikers frequenting national parks for tourism and recreation in Northern Sydney, Australia. PPGIS was implemented using both an internet application and with hardcopy maps in the field. Our research addressed two fundamental questions for park planning: (1) What is the spatial distribution of visitor activities and location-specific reasons for riding; and (2) What location-specific actions are needed to improve riding experiences? The spatial distributions of riding activities generated in PPGIS showed strong correlation with the GPS tracking results, with riding locations being related to the reasons for track selection. Riders proposed a broad range of management actions to improve riding experiences. PPGIS mapping provides a costeffective approach to facilitate spatial decision making, allowing park agencies to prioritise future visitor management actions. We discuss the strengths and limitations of these research methods.

Which ‘public'? Sampling effects in public participation GIS (PPGIS) and volunteered geographic information (VGI) systems for public lands management

Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 2013

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or s... more This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae, and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.

Identifying Environmental and Natural Resource Management Conflict Potential Using Participatory Mapping

Society & Natural Resources

Methods have been proposed for identifying land use conflict potential using participatory mappin... more Methods have been proposed for identifying land use conflict potential using participatory mapping data and models. In a case study from Finland, we extend conflict mapping research by evaluating the capacity for participatory mapping to identify conflict for land uses that include mining, tourism development, commercial forestry, recreation, and nature protection. We evaluated two conflict models using reference sites where conflict was expected and assessed whether conflict potential was influenced by participant social group (resident, visitor, holiday home owner). The conflict models correctly identified the locations of current and proposed mining projects and major tourism locations (ski areas) in the region, while conflict for commercial forestry and reindeer herding was spatially distributed. Preferences for land use by social group were more similar than different across the study region. Identification of conflict potential using participatory mapping can provide a useful planning diagnostic but would benefit from additional research for validation.

Using public participatory mapping to inform general land use planning and zoning

Zoning is a ubiquitous land use planning and regulatory mechanism whose purpose is to provide for... more Zoning is a ubiquitous land use planning and regulatory mechanism whose purpose is to provide for orderly community growth and development by segregating land uses that are deemed incompatible. The delineation of zones and related land use ordinances are traditional components of an expert-driven, local government process that produces a general or comprehensive land use plan as required by law. Public participation in the development of general land use plans has rarely used participatory mapping methods that engage the general public to explicitly inform zoning decisions. In this study, we demonstrate how participatory mapping methods can assess the consistency, compatibility, and potential conflict of zoning with public values and preferences in a general plan revision process using a coastal community in California as a case study. We describe the participatory mapping design, data collection, and data analyses in a workflow to illustrate the methods, and present the strengths a...

Empirical PPGIS/PGIS mapping of ecosystem services: A review and evaluation

Ecosystem Services, 2014

ABSTRACT We review public participation GIS (PPGIS) and participatory GIS (PGIS) approaches for e... more ABSTRACT We review public participation GIS (PPGIS) and participatory GIS (PGIS) approaches for ecosystem services to identify current and best practice. PPGIS/PGIS are spatially explicit methods that have evolved over the past decade to identify a range of ecosystem services. Although PPGIS/PGIS methods demonstrate high potential for the identification of ecosystem services, especially cultural services, there has been no review to evaluate the methods to identify best practice. Through examination of peer-reviewed, empirical PPGIS/PGIS studies, we describe the types of ecosystem services mapped, the spatial mapping methods, the sampling approaches and range of participants, the types of spatial analyses performed, and the methodological trade-offs associated with each PPGIS/PGIS mapping approach. We found that multiple methods were implemented in nearly 30 case studies worldwide with the mapping of cultural and provisioning services being most common. There was little evidence that mapped ecosystem data was used for actual decision support in land use planning. Best practice has yet to coalesce in this field that has been dominated by methodological pluralism and case study research. We suggest greater use of experimental design and long-term case studies where the influence of mapped ecosystem services on land use decisions can be assessed.

A system dynamics simulation model for sustainable water resources management and agricultural development in the Volta River Basin, Ghana

The Science of the total environment, Jan 26, 2016

In a rapidly changing water resources system, dynamic models based on the notion of systems think... more In a rapidly changing water resources system, dynamic models based on the notion of systems thinking can serve as useful analytical tools for scientists and policy-makers to study changes in key system variables over time. In this paper, an integrated system dynamics simulation model was developed using a system dynamics modelling approach to examine the feedback processes and interaction between the population, the water resource, and the agricultural production sub-sectors of the Volta River Basin in West Africa. The objective of the model is to provide a learning tool for policy-makers to improve their understanding of the long-term dynamic behaviour of the basin, and as a decision support tool for exploring plausible policy scenarios necessary for sustainable water resource management and agricultural development. Structural and behavioural pattern tests, and statistical test were used to evaluate and validate the performance of the model. The results showed that the simulated o...

The influence of sampling design on spatial data quality in a geographic citizen science project

Transactions in GIS, 2019

Geographic citizen science has much potential to assist in wildlife research and conservation, bu... more Geographic citizen science has much potential to assist in wildlife research and conservation, but the quality of observation data is a key concern. We examined the effects of sampling design on the quality of spatial data collected for a koala citizen science project in Australia. Data were collected from three samples-volunteers (n = 454), an Internet panel (n = 103), and landowners (n = 35)-to assess spatial data quality, a dimension of citizen science projects rarely considered. The locational accuracy of koala observations among the samples was similar when benchmarked against authoritative data (i.e., an expert-derived koala distribution model), but there were differences in the quantity of data generated. Fewer koala location data were generated per participant by the Internet panel sample than the volunteer or landowner samples. Spatial preferences for land uses affecting koala conservation were also mapped, with landowners more likely to map locations for residential and tourism development and volunteers less likely. These spatial preferences have the potential to influence the social acceptability of future koala conservation proposals. With careful sampling design, both citizen observations and land use