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Almog Kasher

Bar-Ilan University, Arabic, Faculty Member

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Sibawayhi Studies

Beata Sheyhatovitch

Tel Aviv University

National University of Singapore

Simona Olivieri

Università Ca' Foscari Venezia

Institut Dominicain d'Études Orientales (IDEO)

Antonella Ghersetti

Università Ca' Foscari Venezia

Radboud University Nijmegen

Michal Marmorstein

The Hebrew University of Jerusalem

The University of Texas at Austin

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Papers by Almog Kasher

Anachronistic Bias in the Study of Arabic Grammatical Tradition: The Case of the Term ḥarf in Sībawayhi's al-Kitāb

Historiographia Linguistica , 2023

One of the most obscure and most frequently commented on texts in Arabic grammatical tradition is... more One of the most obscure and most frequently commented on texts in Arabic grammatical tradition is the opening formulation in its earliest extant book, Sībawayhi's al-Kitāb, concerning the tripartite division of parts of speech. For the third part of speech, the particle, around which the present article revolves, Sībawayhi uses a complex term, whose head is ḥarf, a term which is commonly used by itself by later grammarians for this part of speech. This article revisits the question of whether the term ḥarf by itself denotes "particle" in al-Kitāb, alongside the denotation "word". Following Weiss' article, published more than a hundred years ago, it will be argued that ḥarf does not denote "particle" in al-Kitāb, though occurrences thereof may refer to particles, and that scholars who ascribe the later denotation "particle" to ḥarf in al-Kitāb do so due to an anachronistic bias.

'Unorthodox' Usages of the Term xabar in the Early Arabic Grammatical Tradition

Journal of Semitic Studies, 2024

This paper examines the term xabar. It focuses on cases where xabar, or the dyad ism-xabar, is us... more This paper examines the term xabar. It focuses on cases where xabar, or the dyad ism-xabar, is used at variance with canonical theory. These cases suggest that the triad X + X’s ism + X’s xabar (familiar when X = ʾinna, kāna and their ‘sisters’) was used to accommodate tripartite configurations whose so-called xabar is not a predicate, or whose ism and xabar are generally taken to be mubtadaʾ and xabar. This syntactic model, which differs significantly from the canonical theory of sentence types in the Arabic grammatical tradition, was most probably designed for pedagogical aims. This alternative model analyzes sentences according to their surface structure, with focus on initial constituents, whereas canonical syntactic model’s point of departure is a distinction between sentence types, based on the concept of predication and taking into consideration word order variation. An appendix on the little-known grammarian al-Quhunduzī examines the history of the figure, who has in modern scholarship been confused with another author. Pinning down his identity and the period in which he lived dispels confusion about the figure, allowing us to better place his work in the scholarly record.

Pedagogical Considerations and Terminological Conventions in Arabic Grammatical Tradition: The Term jumla Revisited

International Journal of Arabic Linguistics, 2023

It has been claimed in modern scholarship that the term jumla ("sentence"/"clause") as used by ea... more It has been claimed in modern scholarship that the term jumla ("sentence"/"clause") as used by early grammarians differed from its use by later ones, in that it excluded verbal clauses, or at least a subtype thereof. The present article argues that conclusions regarding grammatical theories should not be drawn from isolated texts; rather, other factors, such as pedagogical considerations, the history of terms and manners of speech which were conventional in grammatical writings, should also be taken into account. More specifically, it will be shown that although some texts display terminological inconsistencies regarding the use of jumla, they do not reflect an early theory.

Was ʾilā a Noun in Arabic Grammatical Tradition?

Romano-Arabica , 2022

This article raises the possibility that several grammarians classified ʾilā as a noun (ism), at ... more This article raises the possibility that several grammarians classified ʾilā as a noun (ism), at least in certain constructions. First, we discuss the view attributed by later grammarians to ʾAbū Bakr Ibn al-ʾAnbārī, according to which ʾilā is a noun, as it may follow the preposition min. Secondly, we succinctly address Ibn al-Sarrāj’s ascription to Sībawayhi of the classification of ʾilā under the nominal category of ẓurūf. Finally, and most importantly, we raise the possibility that ʾilā in the interjection (ism fiʿl) ʾilayka was categorized by Sībawayhi as a noun. The discussion of ʾilayka in al-Kitāb as well as by later grammarians may shed some light on grammarians’ conceptions of the noun-ness of the category of ism fiʿl.

How (Not) to Read Pedagogical Grammars of Arabic: The Case of the Subjunctive Mood

The IOS Annual 21: “Carrying a Torch to Distant Mountains”, ed. Yoram Cohen, Amir Gilan, Letizia Cerqueglini and Beata Sheyhatovitch, 2021

Medieval pedagogical grammars of Arabic have often been studied on a par with theoretically orien... more Medieval pedagogical grammars of Arabic have often been studied on a par with theoretically oriented treatises, under the assumption that the former basically differ from the latter merely in their more concise nature and their lack of lengthy discussions that would place an unnecessary burden on students. The main argument in this article is that grammatical descriptions found in pedagogical grammars may not reflect the views of their authors, but may rather be the result of the authors’ adaptation of their formulations to the genre. To demonstrate this, I focus in this study on explanations in several pedagogical grammars that are at sharp variance with the canonical theory in Arabic grammatical tradition, with respect to the identification of the operators assigning the subjunctive mood to the verbs following several particles.

Semantic and Formal Underlying Levels in Arabic Grammatical Tradition: The Case of Exceptive Sentences

Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft , 2020

It is customary in modern scholarship to classify exceptive sentences such as mā qāma ʾillā zaydu... more It is customary in modern scholarship to classify exceptive sentences such as mā qāma ʾillā zaydun 'no one stood except Zayd' (the so-called al-istiṯnāʾ al-mufarraġ) as containing a restored general term (mustaṯnā minhu), that is, to posit for the abovementioned sentence an underlying structure such as mā qāma ʾaḥadun ʾillā zaydun. Moreover, it has occasionally been claimed that this view was also held by Arab grammarians. However, the writings of Arab grammarians present a much more complicated picture. In this article three different analyses of al-istiṯnāʾ al-mufarraġ will be discussed: whereas the first is completely distinct from the foregoing analysis, and the third shows remarkable similarity with it, it is on the second analysis, which posits an underlying general term, but only at the semantic level, that our discussion will concentrate.

Early Pedagogical Grammars of Arabic

The Foundations of Arabic Linguistics III: The Development of Tradition: Continuity and Change, ed. Georgine Ayoub and Kees Versteegh, Leiden: Brill, 2018

Iconicity in Arabic Grammatical Tradition: al-Suhaylī on the Correspondence between Form and Meaning

Romano-Arabica , 2016

Iconicity, the correspondence between form and meaning, was seldom discussed in Arabic grammatica... more Iconicity, the correspondence between form and meaning, was seldom discussed in Arabic grammatical tradition. The grammarian best known for his interest in this issue in Arabic is Ibn Jinnī. Here it will be demonstrated that iconicity is even more prominent in the thought of another grammarian, the Andalusian al-Suhaylī.
The present paper will analyse linguistic phenomena which al-Suhaylī explains as iconic. It will be shown that not only did al-Suhaylī's use of iconic explanations exceed what one generally encounters in the writings of Arab grammarians, both in extent and explicitness, but also that for him iconicity is deeply grounded in a philosophical-theological principle, linked with his view on the origin of language.
It will be argued that within the Arab grammarians' framework of linguistic "causes" (ˁilal), iconic explanations are, by definition, "ultimate", as they need no further explanation.

Two Types of taqdīr? A Study in Ibn Hišām’s Concept of “Speaker’s Intention”

Arabica , 2009

The term taqdīr is mostly used in Arabic grammatical tradition to refer to underlying structures,... more The term taqdīr is mostly used in Arabic grammatical tradition to refer to underlying structures, i.e. to sentences, forms etc. intended by the speakers but which differ from the sentences, forms etc. which they actually utter. This is also the sense modern scholars have in mind when discussing taqdīr. Yet the term proves to have a significantly wider extension, embracing also cases where it pertains not to underlying structures, but to properties possessed by constituents at surface structure, such as the syntactic functions they assume and the parts of speech to which they belong. Both usages of the term taqdīr, however, are derived from the single basic sense it conveys, viz. speakers’ intention. This argument is illustrated in the present article through Ibn Hišām's writings.

“Though this be madness, yet there is method in’t”: The mamnūʿ min al-ṣarf (diptotes) in Arabic grammatical tradition

by Almog Kasher and Jean Druel

Arabica, 2019

This article discusses theories designed by medieval Arabic grammarians to explain one of the mos... more This article discusses theories designed by medieval Arabic grammarians to explain one of the most puzzling topics in Arabic grammar, mamnūʿ min al-ṣarf (“diptotes”). The mainstream theory of mamnūʿ min al-ṣarf probably took on its definitive form in the early 4th/10th century; it differs from Sībawayhi’s (d. c. 180/796) theory, yet consists of a generalisation of features found in the latter. A later modification, which retained its basic elements, was presented to the mainstream theory probably during the 7th/13th century. A radically different theory was presented by al-Suhaylī (d. 581/1185), who harshly criticised the mainstream theory as inadequate and arbitrary.

Cet article analyse les théories élaborées par les grammairiens arabes médiévaux pour expliquer l’un des phénomènes les plus surprenants de la grammaire arabe, le mamnūʿ min al-ṣarf (« diptotes »). La théorie classique du mamnūʿ min al-ṣarf a probablement été finalisée au début du IVe/Xe siècle ; elle diffère de la théorie de Sībawayhi (m. v. 180/796), dont elle généralise cependant les principales caractéristiques. Une modification ultérieure a été apportée à cette théorie classique, probablement durant le VIIe/XIIIe siècle, qui a néanmoins conservé ses éléments de base. Cependant, une théorie radicalement différente a été proposée par al-Suhaylī (d. 581/1185), qui critique férocement la théorie classique, la décrivant comme inadéquate et arbitraire.

How medieval Jews studied classical Arabic grammar: a Kūfan primer from the Cairo Genizah

by Nadia Vidro and Almog Kasher

JSAI 41 (2014), 173-244

How to Parse Effective Objects according to Arab Grammarians? A Dissenting Opinion on al-mafʿūl al-muṭlaq

The Foundations of Arabic Linguistics IV: The Evolution of Theory, ed. Manuela E.B. Giolfo and Kees Versteegh. Leiden: Brill, 2019

In 1991 two articles were published in which the technical term al-mafʿūl almuṭlaq was examined. ... more In 1991 two articles were published in which the technical term al-mafʿūl almuṭlaq was examined. Levin's article (1991), entitled "What is meant by al-mafʿūl al-muṭlaq?", is dedicated in its entirety to this issue, whereas Larcher (1991:153 [= 2014:292f.]) discusses it succinctly in a single paragraph. Their findings are virtually the same:1 The element mafʿūl in the phrase al-mafʿūl almuṭlaq is a personal passive participle. It means 'that which is done' , designating the action done by the agent. For instance, in the sentence qumtu qiyāman lit. 'I rose a rising' , qiyām denotes the action done by the speaker. The word muṭlaq here means 'unqualified' , and should be understood in contradistinction to the other terms in the category of mafʿūlāt/mafāʿīl, e.g. al-mafʿūl fīhi, lit. 'that in which the action is done' (technically: the locative/temporal accusative), terms in which the word mafʿūl is an impersonal passive participle, qualified (muqayyad) by a prepositional phrase (or a ẓarf phrase). By contrast, in the case of al-mafʿūl al-muṭlaq, the passive participle mafʿūl is not qualified by any phrase, as it designates, by itself, the intended meaning, viz. that which is done.

Is ḫalfa a Preposition? On a Subclass of the ẓarf in Arabic Grammatical Tradition

Folia Orientalia , 2016

This article discusses the semantic distinction, drawn in medieval Arabic grammatical tradition, ... more This article discusses the semantic distinction, drawn in medieval Arabic grammatical tradition, between prepositions belonging to the part of speech 'particle', e.g. fī, and a group of nouns (ẓurūf) displaying a certain similarity to such prepositions, e.g. ḫalfa. It is demonstrated that their categorization by Arab grammarians as nouns should not be regarded as merely formal, as portrayed by some modern scholars, but also has semantic aspects, reflected in their referential meaning. It is the latter point around which the present article revolves.

The Term mafʿūl in Sībawayhi's al-Kitāb

The Foundations of Arabic Linguistics: Sībawayhi and the Early Arabic Grammatical Theory, ed. Amal Marogy, 2012

Why Do Particles (Not) Operate? The Development of the Concept of iḫtiṣāṣ in Arabic Grammatical Tradition

al-Karmil 37-38 (2016-2017), pp. 9-26

According to the theory of ʿamal (syntactic effect, operation) in Arabic grammatical tradition, a... more According to the theory of ʿamal (syntactic effect, operation) in Arabic grammatical tradition, a correspondence obtains between operators'in particular, particles'exertion of ʿamal and their being exclusive to either nouns or verbs. This article discusses the development this principle of iḫtiṣāṣ (lit. "specialization") underwent, from its (probably) initial stage in Sībawayhi's al-Kitāb and al-Mubarrad's al-Muqtaḍab, to the final shape it took under Ibn al-Sarrāj and later grammarians. It also studies two explanations of a higher-order provided by grammarians for this principle, in which they sought to answer the question of why such a correspondence should exist.

Aspects of syntactic effect (ʿamal) in Arabic grammatical tradition: The term šuġl in Sībawayhi's al-Kitāb and beyond

Beata Sheyhatovitch and Almog Kasher (eds.), From Sībawayhi to ʾAḥmad Ḥasan al-Zayyāt: New Angles on the Arabic Linguistic Tradition, Leiden: Brill, 2020

Technical terms in Arabic grammatical tradition and their everyday meanings: The case of al-ḥāl al-muqaddara

MIDÉO (Mélanges de l'Institut dominicain d'études orientales), 2019

It has been long recognized that many expressions used by Arab grammarians display an ambiguity b... more It has been long recognized that many expressions used by Arab grammarians display an ambiguity between their technical senses and the extralinguistic concepts in which they originate. This article addresses the problem stemming from the fact that adjectival attributes of technical terms can either modify the technical meanings of their heads or their everyday meanings. In a recent article on the term ḥāl muqaddara, Levin argues that the adjective muqaddara, in the sense of "underlying", modifies the technical meaning of the term ḥāl, i.e. circumstantial qualifier. The present article shows that most medieval scholars apprehended the adjective muqaddara, in the sense of "expected, intended, decreed, etc.", as modifying the everyday meaning of the term ḥāl, viz. "state". It also demonstrates the importance of texts outside grammars per se for the study of medieval grammatical terminology.

Abstract principles in Arabic grammatical theory: The operator assigning the independent mood

Amal E. Marogy and Kees Versteegh (eds.), The Foundations of Arabic Linguistics II. Kitāb Sībawayhi: Interpretation and Transmission. Leiden: Brill, 2015

The Baṣran grammarians are generally credited with the view that the operator assigning the indep... more The Baṣran grammarians are generally credited with the view that the operator assigning the independent mood to verbs is their filling positions of nouns. The text of al Kitāb shows, on the one hand, that Sībawayhi indeed regards filling positions of nouns as the operator of this mood; on the other hand, his explanation seems to be founded on a "background principle" of the default status of this mood. Later grammarians generally adopt the "Baṣran" view, but do not regard it as a formalization of this "background principle". Yet, elements of Sībawayhi's theory regarding this operator are incorporated into their discussions, which facilitated the reading of later theories into al Kitāb.

The Term al-fiʿl al-mutaʿaddī bi-ḥarf jarr (lit. “the verb which ‘passes over’ through a preposition”) in Medieval Arabic Grammatical Tradition

JAIS , 2013

The Vocative as a "Speech Act" in Early Arabic Grammatical Tradition

Histoire Épistémologie Langage , 2013

This article discusses an early grammatical theory regarding the vocative in Arabic. According to... more This article discusses an early grammatical theory regarding the vocative in Arabic. According to the generally accepted indigenous theory of case assignment, accusative nouns, such as the one featuring in the vocative construction, require verbal operators; yet positing such an underlying verb for the vocative construction – an otherwise ubiquitous practice in this tradition in such situations – would turn the vocative construction into a statement, whereas some grammarians regard it as a "speech act". A detailed analysis of the solution to this problem by a tenth century grammarian is followed by a comparison with the modern speech act theory; highlighting the important differences between the two can help us grasp early Arabic grammatical thought regarding the vocative. On the other hand, a striking similarity is shown to exist between this early analysis of the vocative and modern analyses of sentences such as "Frankly, you're drunk".

Anachronistic Bias in the Study of Arabic Grammatical Tradition: The Case of the Term ḥarf in Sībawayhi's al-Kitāb

Historiographia Linguistica , 2023

One of the most obscure and most frequently commented on texts in Arabic grammatical tradition is... more One of the most obscure and most frequently commented on texts in Arabic grammatical tradition is the opening formulation in its earliest extant book, Sībawayhi's al-Kitāb, concerning the tripartite division of parts of speech. For the third part of speech, the particle, around which the present article revolves, Sībawayhi uses a complex term, whose head is ḥarf, a term which is commonly used by itself by later grammarians for this part of speech. This article revisits the question of whether the term ḥarf by itself denotes "particle" in al-Kitāb, alongside the denotation "word". Following Weiss' article, published more than a hundred years ago, it will be argued that ḥarf does not denote "particle" in al-Kitāb, though occurrences thereof may refer to particles, and that scholars who ascribe the later denotation "particle" to ḥarf in al-Kitāb do so due to an anachronistic bias.

'Unorthodox' Usages of the Term xabar in the Early Arabic Grammatical Tradition

Journal of Semitic Studies, 2024

This paper examines the term xabar. It focuses on cases where xabar, or the dyad ism-xabar, is us... more This paper examines the term xabar. It focuses on cases where xabar, or the dyad ism-xabar, is used at variance with canonical theory. These cases suggest that the triad X + X’s ism + X’s xabar (familiar when X = ʾinna, kāna and their ‘sisters’) was used to accommodate tripartite configurations whose so-called xabar is not a predicate, or whose ism and xabar are generally taken to be mubtadaʾ and xabar. This syntactic model, which differs significantly from the canonical theory of sentence types in the Arabic grammatical tradition, was most probably designed for pedagogical aims. This alternative model analyzes sentences according to their surface structure, with focus on initial constituents, whereas canonical syntactic model’s point of departure is a distinction between sentence types, based on the concept of predication and taking into consideration word order variation. An appendix on the little-known grammarian al-Quhunduzī examines the history of the figure, who has in modern scholarship been confused with another author. Pinning down his identity and the period in which he lived dispels confusion about the figure, allowing us to better place his work in the scholarly record.

Pedagogical Considerations and Terminological Conventions in Arabic Grammatical Tradition: The Term jumla Revisited

International Journal of Arabic Linguistics, 2023

It has been claimed in modern scholarship that the term jumla ("sentence"/"clause") as used by ea... more It has been claimed in modern scholarship that the term jumla ("sentence"/"clause") as used by early grammarians differed from its use by later ones, in that it excluded verbal clauses, or at least a subtype thereof. The present article argues that conclusions regarding grammatical theories should not be drawn from isolated texts; rather, other factors, such as pedagogical considerations, the history of terms and manners of speech which were conventional in grammatical writings, should also be taken into account. More specifically, it will be shown that although some texts display terminological inconsistencies regarding the use of jumla, they do not reflect an early theory.

Was ʾilā a Noun in Arabic Grammatical Tradition?

Romano-Arabica , 2022

This article raises the possibility that several grammarians classified ʾilā as a noun (ism), at ... more This article raises the possibility that several grammarians classified ʾilā as a noun (ism), at least in certain constructions. First, we discuss the view attributed by later grammarians to ʾAbū Bakr Ibn al-ʾAnbārī, according to which ʾilā is a noun, as it may follow the preposition min. Secondly, we succinctly address Ibn al-Sarrāj’s ascription to Sībawayhi of the classification of ʾilā under the nominal category of ẓurūf. Finally, and most importantly, we raise the possibility that ʾilā in the interjection (ism fiʿl) ʾilayka was categorized by Sībawayhi as a noun. The discussion of ʾilayka in al-Kitāb as well as by later grammarians may shed some light on grammarians’ conceptions of the noun-ness of the category of ism fiʿl.

How (Not) to Read Pedagogical Grammars of Arabic: The Case of the Subjunctive Mood

The IOS Annual 21: “Carrying a Torch to Distant Mountains”, ed. Yoram Cohen, Amir Gilan, Letizia Cerqueglini and Beata Sheyhatovitch, 2021

Medieval pedagogical grammars of Arabic have often been studied on a par with theoretically orien... more Medieval pedagogical grammars of Arabic have often been studied on a par with theoretically oriented treatises, under the assumption that the former basically differ from the latter merely in their more concise nature and their lack of lengthy discussions that would place an unnecessary burden on students. The main argument in this article is that grammatical descriptions found in pedagogical grammars may not reflect the views of their authors, but may rather be the result of the authors’ adaptation of their formulations to the genre. To demonstrate this, I focus in this study on explanations in several pedagogical grammars that are at sharp variance with the canonical theory in Arabic grammatical tradition, with respect to the identification of the operators assigning the subjunctive mood to the verbs following several particles.

Semantic and Formal Underlying Levels in Arabic Grammatical Tradition: The Case of Exceptive Sentences

Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft , 2020

It is customary in modern scholarship to classify exceptive sentences such as mā qāma ʾillā zaydu... more It is customary in modern scholarship to classify exceptive sentences such as mā qāma ʾillā zaydun 'no one stood except Zayd' (the so-called al-istiṯnāʾ al-mufarraġ) as containing a restored general term (mustaṯnā minhu), that is, to posit for the abovementioned sentence an underlying structure such as mā qāma ʾaḥadun ʾillā zaydun. Moreover, it has occasionally been claimed that this view was also held by Arab grammarians. However, the writings of Arab grammarians present a much more complicated picture. In this article three different analyses of al-istiṯnāʾ al-mufarraġ will be discussed: whereas the first is completely distinct from the foregoing analysis, and the third shows remarkable similarity with it, it is on the second analysis, which posits an underlying general term, but only at the semantic level, that our discussion will concentrate.

Early Pedagogical Grammars of Arabic

The Foundations of Arabic Linguistics III: The Development of Tradition: Continuity and Change, ed. Georgine Ayoub and Kees Versteegh, Leiden: Brill, 2018

Iconicity in Arabic Grammatical Tradition: al-Suhaylī on the Correspondence between Form and Meaning

Romano-Arabica , 2016

Iconicity, the correspondence between form and meaning, was seldom discussed in Arabic grammatica... more Iconicity, the correspondence between form and meaning, was seldom discussed in Arabic grammatical tradition. The grammarian best known for his interest in this issue in Arabic is Ibn Jinnī. Here it will be demonstrated that iconicity is even more prominent in the thought of another grammarian, the Andalusian al-Suhaylī.
The present paper will analyse linguistic phenomena which al-Suhaylī explains as iconic. It will be shown that not only did al-Suhaylī's use of iconic explanations exceed what one generally encounters in the writings of Arab grammarians, both in extent and explicitness, but also that for him iconicity is deeply grounded in a philosophical-theological principle, linked with his view on the origin of language.
It will be argued that within the Arab grammarians' framework of linguistic "causes" (ˁilal), iconic explanations are, by definition, "ultimate", as they need no further explanation.

Two Types of taqdīr? A Study in Ibn Hišām’s Concept of “Speaker’s Intention”

Arabica , 2009

The term taqdīr is mostly used in Arabic grammatical tradition to refer to underlying structures,... more The term taqdīr is mostly used in Arabic grammatical tradition to refer to underlying structures, i.e. to sentences, forms etc. intended by the speakers but which differ from the sentences, forms etc. which they actually utter. This is also the sense modern scholars have in mind when discussing taqdīr. Yet the term proves to have a significantly wider extension, embracing also cases where it pertains not to underlying structures, but to properties possessed by constituents at surface structure, such as the syntactic functions they assume and the parts of speech to which they belong. Both usages of the term taqdīr, however, are derived from the single basic sense it conveys, viz. speakers’ intention. This argument is illustrated in the present article through Ibn Hišām's writings.

“Though this be madness, yet there is method in’t”: The mamnūʿ min al-ṣarf (diptotes) in Arabic grammatical tradition

by Almog Kasher and Jean Druel

Arabica, 2019

This article discusses theories designed by medieval Arabic grammarians to explain one of the mos... more This article discusses theories designed by medieval Arabic grammarians to explain one of the most puzzling topics in Arabic grammar, mamnūʿ min al-ṣarf (“diptotes”). The mainstream theory of mamnūʿ min al-ṣarf probably took on its definitive form in the early 4th/10th century; it differs from Sībawayhi’s (d. c. 180/796) theory, yet consists of a generalisation of features found in the latter. A later modification, which retained its basic elements, was presented to the mainstream theory probably during the 7th/13th century. A radically different theory was presented by al-Suhaylī (d. 581/1185), who harshly criticised the mainstream theory as inadequate and arbitrary.

Cet article analyse les théories élaborées par les grammairiens arabes médiévaux pour expliquer l’un des phénomènes les plus surprenants de la grammaire arabe, le mamnūʿ min al-ṣarf (« diptotes »). La théorie classique du mamnūʿ min al-ṣarf a probablement été finalisée au début du IVe/Xe siècle ; elle diffère de la théorie de Sībawayhi (m. v. 180/796), dont elle généralise cependant les principales caractéristiques. Une modification ultérieure a été apportée à cette théorie classique, probablement durant le VIIe/XIIIe siècle, qui a néanmoins conservé ses éléments de base. Cependant, une théorie radicalement différente a été proposée par al-Suhaylī (d. 581/1185), qui critique férocement la théorie classique, la décrivant comme inadéquate et arbitraire.

How medieval Jews studied classical Arabic grammar: a Kūfan primer from the Cairo Genizah

by Nadia Vidro and Almog Kasher

JSAI 41 (2014), 173-244

How to Parse Effective Objects according to Arab Grammarians? A Dissenting Opinion on al-mafʿūl al-muṭlaq

The Foundations of Arabic Linguistics IV: The Evolution of Theory, ed. Manuela E.B. Giolfo and Kees Versteegh. Leiden: Brill, 2019

In 1991 two articles were published in which the technical term al-mafʿūl almuṭlaq was examined. ... more In 1991 two articles were published in which the technical term al-mafʿūl almuṭlaq was examined. Levin's article (1991), entitled "What is meant by al-mafʿūl al-muṭlaq?", is dedicated in its entirety to this issue, whereas Larcher (1991:153 [= 2014:292f.]) discusses it succinctly in a single paragraph. Their findings are virtually the same:1 The element mafʿūl in the phrase al-mafʿūl almuṭlaq is a personal passive participle. It means 'that which is done' , designating the action done by the agent. For instance, in the sentence qumtu qiyāman lit. 'I rose a rising' , qiyām denotes the action done by the speaker. The word muṭlaq here means 'unqualified' , and should be understood in contradistinction to the other terms in the category of mafʿūlāt/mafāʿīl, e.g. al-mafʿūl fīhi, lit. 'that in which the action is done' (technically: the locative/temporal accusative), terms in which the word mafʿūl is an impersonal passive participle, qualified (muqayyad) by a prepositional phrase (or a ẓarf phrase). By contrast, in the case of al-mafʿūl al-muṭlaq, the passive participle mafʿūl is not qualified by any phrase, as it designates, by itself, the intended meaning, viz. that which is done.

Is ḫalfa a Preposition? On a Subclass of the ẓarf in Arabic Grammatical Tradition

Folia Orientalia , 2016

This article discusses the semantic distinction, drawn in medieval Arabic grammatical tradition, ... more This article discusses the semantic distinction, drawn in medieval Arabic grammatical tradition, between prepositions belonging to the part of speech 'particle', e.g. fī, and a group of nouns (ẓurūf) displaying a certain similarity to such prepositions, e.g. ḫalfa. It is demonstrated that their categorization by Arab grammarians as nouns should not be regarded as merely formal, as portrayed by some modern scholars, but also has semantic aspects, reflected in their referential meaning. It is the latter point around which the present article revolves.

The Term mafʿūl in Sībawayhi's al-Kitāb

The Foundations of Arabic Linguistics: Sībawayhi and the Early Arabic Grammatical Theory, ed. Amal Marogy, 2012

Why Do Particles (Not) Operate? The Development of the Concept of iḫtiṣāṣ in Arabic Grammatical Tradition

al-Karmil 37-38 (2016-2017), pp. 9-26

According to the theory of ʿamal (syntactic effect, operation) in Arabic grammatical tradition, a... more According to the theory of ʿamal (syntactic effect, operation) in Arabic grammatical tradition, a correspondence obtains between operators'in particular, particles'exertion of ʿamal and their being exclusive to either nouns or verbs. This article discusses the development this principle of iḫtiṣāṣ (lit. "specialization") underwent, from its (probably) initial stage in Sībawayhi's al-Kitāb and al-Mubarrad's al-Muqtaḍab, to the final shape it took under Ibn al-Sarrāj and later grammarians. It also studies two explanations of a higher-order provided by grammarians for this principle, in which they sought to answer the question of why such a correspondence should exist.

Aspects of syntactic effect (ʿamal) in Arabic grammatical tradition: The term šuġl in Sībawayhi's al-Kitāb and beyond

Beata Sheyhatovitch and Almog Kasher (eds.), From Sībawayhi to ʾAḥmad Ḥasan al-Zayyāt: New Angles on the Arabic Linguistic Tradition, Leiden: Brill, 2020

Technical terms in Arabic grammatical tradition and their everyday meanings: The case of al-ḥāl al-muqaddara

MIDÉO (Mélanges de l'Institut dominicain d'études orientales), 2019

It has been long recognized that many expressions used by Arab grammarians display an ambiguity b... more It has been long recognized that many expressions used by Arab grammarians display an ambiguity between their technical senses and the extralinguistic concepts in which they originate. This article addresses the problem stemming from the fact that adjectival attributes of technical terms can either modify the technical meanings of their heads or their everyday meanings. In a recent article on the term ḥāl muqaddara, Levin argues that the adjective muqaddara, in the sense of "underlying", modifies the technical meaning of the term ḥāl, i.e. circumstantial qualifier. The present article shows that most medieval scholars apprehended the adjective muqaddara, in the sense of "expected, intended, decreed, etc.", as modifying the everyday meaning of the term ḥāl, viz. "state". It also demonstrates the importance of texts outside grammars per se for the study of medieval grammatical terminology.

Abstract principles in Arabic grammatical theory: The operator assigning the independent mood

Amal E. Marogy and Kees Versteegh (eds.), The Foundations of Arabic Linguistics II. Kitāb Sībawayhi: Interpretation and Transmission. Leiden: Brill, 2015

The Baṣran grammarians are generally credited with the view that the operator assigning the indep... more The Baṣran grammarians are generally credited with the view that the operator assigning the independent mood to verbs is their filling positions of nouns. The text of al Kitāb shows, on the one hand, that Sībawayhi indeed regards filling positions of nouns as the operator of this mood; on the other hand, his explanation seems to be founded on a "background principle" of the default status of this mood. Later grammarians generally adopt the "Baṣran" view, but do not regard it as a formalization of this "background principle". Yet, elements of Sībawayhi's theory regarding this operator are incorporated into their discussions, which facilitated the reading of later theories into al Kitāb.

The Term al-fiʿl al-mutaʿaddī bi-ḥarf jarr (lit. “the verb which ‘passes over’ through a preposition”) in Medieval Arabic Grammatical Tradition

JAIS , 2013

The Vocative as a "Speech Act" in Early Arabic Grammatical Tradition

Histoire Épistémologie Langage , 2013

This article discusses an early grammatical theory regarding the vocative in Arabic. According to... more This article discusses an early grammatical theory regarding the vocative in Arabic. According to the generally accepted indigenous theory of case assignment, accusative nouns, such as the one featuring in the vocative construction, require verbal operators; yet positing such an underlying verb for the vocative construction – an otherwise ubiquitous practice in this tradition in such situations – would turn the vocative construction into a statement, whereas some grammarians regard it as a "speech act". A detailed analysis of the solution to this problem by a tenth century grammarian is followed by a comparison with the modern speech act theory; highlighting the important differences between the two can help us grasp early Arabic grammatical thought regarding the vocative. On the other hand, a striking similarity is shown to exist between this early analysis of the vocative and modern analyses of sentences such as "Frankly, you're drunk".

From Sībawayhi to ʾAḥmad Ḥasan al-Zayyāt: New Angles on the Arabic Linguistic Tradition

by Beata Sheyhatovitch and Almog Kasher

From Sībawayhi to ʾAḥmad Ḥasan al-Zayyāt: New Angles on the Arabic Linguistic Tradition, a volume... more From Sībawayhi to ʾAḥmad Ḥasan al-Zayyāt: New Angles on the Arabic Linguistic Tradition, a volume edited by Beata Sheyhatovitch and Almog Kasher, brings together nine articles written by leading scholars of the Arabic linguistic tradition. These articles trace the development of the tradition, from Sībawayhi to modern Arabic language academies. The authors shed light on lesser-known aspects of this tradition, such as little-investigated grammatical structures, and problematic spots of the ʿamal theory and the grammatical terminology. They explore the discipline’s relations with stylistics and logic, the Arab grammarians’ influence on Jewish Bible exegesis, and modern applications of medieval Arabic grammatical theory. This volume showcases the richness of the medieval Arabic linguistic literature and the diversity of ideas found within it.

A Critical Edition of the Grammatical Treatise Mīzān al-ʿarabiyya by Ibn al-ʾAnbārī (d. 577/1181)

by Almog Kasher and Arik Sadan

Medieval Arab scholars held grammar in very high esteem due to two main reasons. First, intellect... more Medieval Arab scholars held grammar in very high esteem due to two main reasons. First, intellectual curiosity led them to investigate the language and its structures. Secondly, the desire to better understand the holy text of the Qurʾān made Arabic grammar indispensable. The intellectual curiosity as well as the interconnection between grammar and the study of religion can be seen in the grammarians’ writings and theories in general and in this book in particular.
The book consists of a critical edition and the analysis of an early treatise in the field of Arabic grammar, based on two manuscripts located in England and Egypt. The work’s title is Mīzān al-ʿarabiyya which literally means ‘the balance, or scales, of Arabic.’ It is a pedagogical work dedicated to Arabic grammar and written by the famous Arabic grammarian Ibn al-ʾAnbārī (died 577/1181) who is probably best known for his al-ʾInṣāf fī masāʾil al-ḫilāf bayn al-naḥwiyyīn al-baṣriyyīn wa-l-kūfiyyīn, a collection of Streitfragen (controversial issues) attributed to the Baṣran and Kūfan grammarians. Among his rather few other extant treatises is the celebrated ʾAsrār al-ʿarabiyya, mostly dedicated to theoretical reasoning behind linguistic facts. In addition to the critical edition of Mīzān al-ʿarabiyya, the book also contains a detailed comparison between this work and the above-mentioned ʾAsrār al-ʿarabiyya, both written by the same author.